diff --git a/GPL-Business/gpl-business.tex b/GPL-Business/gpl-business.tex deleted file mode 100644 index ec1404f..0000000 --- a/GPL-Business/gpl-business.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1852 +0,0 @@ -% gpl-buisness.tex -*- LaTeX -*- -% Tutorial Text for the GPL for Businesspeople and Developers course -% -% Copyright (C) 2003 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -% License: CC-By-SA-4.0 - -% The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey, -% Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative -% Commons Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License. - -% This text is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but -% WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -% MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. - -% You should have received a copy of the license with this document in -% a file called 'CC-By-SA-4.0.txt'. If not, please visit -% https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode to receive -% the license text. - -\documentclass[12pt]{report} -% FILTER_PS: \input{generate-ps-file} -% FILTER_PDF: \input{generate-pdf-file} -% FILTER_HTML: \input{generate-html-file} -\input{one-inch-margins} - -%\setlength\parskip{0.7em} -%\setlength\parindent{0pt} - -\newcommand{\defn}[1]{\emph{#1}} - -%\pagestyle{empty} - -\begin{document} - -\begin{titlepage} - -{\Large - -\begin{center} - -\vspace{.5in} - -{\sc The GNU General Public License for Businesspeople and Developers } \\ - -\vspace{1in} - -A Tutorial By: - -\vspace{.3in} -Bradley M. Kuhn - -Executive Director - -Free Software Foundation - - -\end{center} -} - -\vfill - -{\parindent 0in -Copyright \copyright{} 2003 \hspace{.2in} Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\vspace{.3in} - -The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey, -Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative Commons -Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License. A copy of that license is -available at \verb=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode=. - -} - -\end{titlepage} - -\pagestyle{plain} -\pagenumbering{roman} - -\begin{abstract} - - -This tutorial gives a section-by-section explanation of the most popular -Free Software copyright license, the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL), -and teaches software developers, managers and business people how to use -the GPL and GPL'ed software successfully in a new Free Software business and -in existing, successful enterprises. - -Attendees should have a general familiarity with software development -processes. A vague understanding of how copyright law applies to software -is also helpful. The tutorial is of most interest to software developers -and managers who run software businesses that modify and/or redistribute -software under terms of the GNU GPL (or who wish to do so in the future), -and those who wish to make use of existing GPL'ed software in their -enterprise. - -This tutorial introduces the GNU GPL and its terms to professionals who -are not well versed in the details of copyright law. Presented by a -software developer and manager, this tutorial informs those who wish to -have a deeper understanding of how the GNU GPL uses copyright law to -protect software freedom and to assist in the formation of Free Software -businesses, and of the organizational motivations behind the GNU GPL. - -Upon completion of the tutorial, successful attendees can expect to have -learned the following: - -\begin{itemize} - - \item the freedom-defending purpose of each term of the GNU GPL. - - \item the redistribution options under the GPL. - - \item the obligations when modifying GPL'ed software. - - \item how to properly apply the GPL to a new software. - - \item how to build a plan for proper and successful compliance with the GPL. - - \item the business advantages that the GPL provides. - - \item the most common business models used in conjunction with the GPL. - - \item how existing GPL'ed software can be used in existing enterprises. -\end{itemize} - -\end{abstract} - -\tableofcontents - -\pagebreak - -\pagenumbering{arabic} - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{What Is Free Software?} - -Consideration of the GNU General Public License (herein, abbreviated as -\defn{GNU GPL} or just \defn{GPL}) must begin by first considering the broader -world of Free Software. The GPL was not created from a void, rather, -it was created to embody and defend a set of principles that were set -forth at the founding of the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation -(FSF)---the organization that upholds, defends and promotes the philosophy -of software freedom. A prerequisite for understanding the GPL and its -terms and conditions is a basic understanding of the principles behind it. -The GPL is unlike almost all other software licenses in that it is -designed to defend and uphold these principles. - -\section{The Free Software Definition} -\label{Free Software Definition} - -The Free Software Definition is set forth in full on FSF's website at -\verb0http://www.fsf.org/0 \verb0philosophy/free-sw.html0. This section -presents an abbreviated version that will focus on the parts that are most -pertinent to the terms of the GPL\@. - -A particular program is Free Software if it grants a particular user of -that program, the following freedoms: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item the freedom to run the program for any purpose. - -\item the freedom to change and modify the program. - -\item the freedom to copy and share the program. - -\item the freedom to share improved versions of the program. - -\end{itemize} - -The focus on ``a particular user'' is very pertinent here. It is not -uncommon for the same version of a specific program to grant these -freedoms to some subset of its user base, while others have none or only -some of these freedoms. Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} talks in -detail about how this can happen even if a program is released under the -GPL\@. - -Some people refer to software that gives these freedoms as ``Open -Source''. Besides having a different political focus than those who call -it Free Software\footnote{The political differences between the Free -Software Movement and the Open Source Movement are documented on FSF's -website at -{\tt http://www.fsf.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html}}, -those who call the software ``Open Source'' are focused on a side issue. -User access to the source code of a program is a prerequisite to make use -of the freedom to modify. However, the important issue is what freedoms -are granted in the license of that source code. Microsoft's ``Shared -Source'' program, for example, gives various types of access to source -code, but almost none of the freedoms described in this section. - -One key issue that is central to these freedoms is that there are no -restrictions on how these freedoms can be exercised. Specifically, users -and programmers can exercise these freedoms non-commercially or -commercially. Licenses that grant these freedoms for non-commercial -activities but prohibit them for commercial activities are considered -non-Free. - -In general, software for which most or all of these freedoms are -restricted in any way is called ``non-Free Software''. Typically, the -term ``proprietary software'' is used more or less interchangeably with -``non-Free Software''. Personally, I tend to use the term ``non-Free -Software'' to refer to non-commercial software that restricts freedom -(such as ``shareware'') and ``proprietary software'' to refer to -commercial software that restricts freedom (such as nearly all of -Microsoft's and Oracle's offerings). - -The remainder of this section considers each of the four freedoms in -detail. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Run} - -For a program to be Free Software, the freedom to run the program must be -completely unrestricted. This means that any use for that software that -the user can come up with must be permitted. Perhaps, for example, the -user has discovered an innovative new use for a particular program, one -that the programmer never could have predicted. Such a use must not be -restricted. - -It was once rare that this freedom was restricted by even proprietary -software; today it is not so rare. Most End User Licensing Agreements -(EULAs) that cover most proprietary software restrict some types of use. -For example, some versions of Microsoft's FrontPage software prohibit use -of the software to create websites that generate negative publicity for -Microsoft. Free Software has no such restrictions; everyone is free to -use Free Software for any purpose whatsoever. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Change and Modify} - -Free Software programs allow users to change, modify and adapt the -software to suit their needs. Access to the source code and related build -scripts are an essential part of this freedom. Without the source code -and the ability to build the binary applications from that source, the -freedom cannot be properly exercised. - -Programmers can take direct benefit from this freedom, and often do. -However, this freedom is also important to users who are not programmers. -Users must have the right to exercise this freedom indirectly in both -commercial and non-commercial settings. For example, users often seek -non-commercial help with the software on email lists and in users groups. -When they find such help, they must have the freedom to recruit -programmers who might altruistically assist them to modify their software. - -The commercial exercise of this freedom is also essential for users. Each -user, or group of users, must have the right to hire anyone they wish in a -competitive free market to modify and change the software. This means -that companies have a right to hire anyone they wish to modify their Free -Software. Additionally, such companies may contract with other companies -to commission software modification. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Copy and Share} - -Users may share Free Software in a variety of ways. Free Software -advocates work to eliminate a fundamental ethical dilemma of the software -age: choosing between obeying a software license, and friendship (by -giving away a copy of a program your friend who likes the software you are -using). Free Software licenses, therefore, must permit this sort of -altruistic sharing of software among friends. - -The commercial environment must also have the benefits of this freedom. -Commercial sharing typically takes the form of selling copies of Free -Software. Free Software can be sold at any price to anyone. Those who -redistribute Free Software commercially have the freedom to selectively -distribute (you can pick your customers) and to set prices at any level -the redistributor sees fit. - -It is true that many people get copies of Free Software very cheaply (and -sometimes without charge). The competitive free market of Free Software -tends to keep prices low and reasonable. However, if someone is willing -to pay a billion dollars for one copy of the GNU Compiler Collection, such -a sale is completely permitted. - -Another common instance of commercial sharing is service-oriented -distribution. For example, a distribution vendor may provide immediate -security and upgrade distribution via a special network service. Such -distribution is completely permitted for Free Software. - -(Section~\ref{Business Models} of this tutorial talks in detail about -various Free Software business models that take advantage of the freedom -to share commercially.) - -\subsection{The Freedom to Share Improvements} - -The freedom to modify and improve is somewhat empty without the freedom to -share those improvements. The Free Software community is built on the -pillar of altruistic sharing of improved Free Software. Inevitably, a -Free Software project sprouts a mailing list where improvements are shared -freely among members of the development community. Such non-commercial -sharing must be permitted for Free Software to thrive. - -Commercial sharing of modified Free Software is equally important. For a -competitive free market for support to exist, all developers --- from -single-person contractors to large software companies --- must have the -freedom to market their services as improvers of Free Software. All forms -of such service marketing must be equally available to all. - -For example, selling support services for Free Software is fully -permitted. Companies and individuals can offer themselves as ``the place -to call'' when software fails or does not function properly. For such a -service to be meaningful, the entity offering that service must have the -right to modify and improve the software for the customer to correct any -problems that are beyond mere user error. - -Entities must also be permitted to make available modified versions of -Free Software. Most Free Software programs have a ``standard version'' -that is made available from the primary developers of the software. -However, all who have the software have the ``freedom to fork'' --- that -is, make available non-trivial modified versions of the software on a -permanent or semi-permanent basis. Such freedom is central to vibrant -developer and user interaction. - -Companies and individuals have the right to make true value-added versions -of Free Software. They may use freedom to share improvements to -distribute distinct versions of Free Software with different functionality -and features. Furthermore, this freedom can be exercised to serve a -disenfranchised subset of the user community. If the developers of the -standard version refuse to serve the needs of some of the software's -users, other entities have the right to create long- or short-lived fork -that serves that sub-community. - -\section{How Does Software Become Free?} - -The last section set forth the freedoms and rights are respected by Free -Software. It presupposed, however, that such software exists. This -section discusses how Free Software comes into existence. But first, it -addresses how software can be non-free in the first place. - -Software can be made proprietary only because it is governed by copyright -law\footnote{This statement is a bit of an oversimplification. Patents - and trade secrets can cover software and make it effectively non-free, - one can contract away their rights and freedoms regarding software, or - source code can be practically obscured in binary-only distribution - without reliance on any legal system. However, the primary control - mechanism for software is copyright.}. Copyright law, with respect to -software, governs copying, modifying, and redistributing that -software\footnote{Copyright law in general also governs ``public - performance'' of copyrighted works. There is no generally agreed - definition for public performance of software and version 2 of the GPL - does not govern public performance.}. By law, the copyright holder (aka -the author) of the work controls how others may copy, modify and/or -distribute the work. For proprietary software, these controls are used to -prohibit these activities. In addition, proprietary software distributors -further impede modification in a practical sense by distributing only -binary code and keeping the source code of the software secret. - -Copyright law is a construction. In the USA, the Constitution permits, -but does not require, the creation of copyright law as federal -legislation. Software, since it is an idea fixed in a tangible medium, is -thus covered by the statues, and is copyrighted by default. - -However, this legal construction is not necessarily natural. Software, in -its natural state without copyright, is Free Software. In an imaginary -world, which has no copyright, the rules would be different. In this -world, when you received a copy of a program's source code, there would be -no default legal system to restrict you from sharing it with others, -making modifications, or redistributing those modified -versions\footnote{There could still exist legal systems, like our modern - patent system, which could restrict the software in other ways.}. - -Software in the real world is copyrighted by default, and that default -legal system does exist. However, it is possible to move software out of -the domain of the copyright system. A copyright holder is always -permitted to \defn{disclaim} their copyright. If copyright is disclaimed, -the software is not governed by copyright law. Software not governed by -copyright is in the ``public domain''. - -\subsection{Public Domain Software} - -An author can create public domain software by disclaiming all copyright -interest on the work. In the USA and other countries that have signed the -Berne convention on copyright, software is copyrighted automatically by -the author when she ``fixes the software into a tangible medium''. In -the software world, this usually means typing the source code of the -software into a file. - -However, an author can disclaim that default control given to her by the -copyright laws. Once this is done, the software is in the public domain ---- it is no longer covered by copyright. Since it is copyright law that -allows for various controls on software (i.e., prohibition of copying, -modification, and redistribution), removing the software from the -copyright system and placing it into the public domain does yield Free -Software. - -Carefully note that software in the public domain is \emph{not} licensed -in any way. It is nonsensical to say software is ``licensed for the -public domain'', or any phrase that implies the copyright holder gave -expressed permission to take actions governed by copyright law. - -By contrast, what the copyright holder has done is renounce her copyright -controls on the work. The law gave her controls over the work, and she -has chosen to waive those controls. Software in the public domain is -absent copyright and absent a license. The software freedoms discussed in -Section~\ref{Free Software Definition} are all granted because there is no -legal system in play to take them away. - -\subsection{Why Copyright Free Software?} - -If simply disclaiming copyright on software yields Free Software, then it -stands to reason that putting software into the public domain is the -easiest and most straightforward way to produce Free Software. Indeed, -some major Free Software projects have chosen this method for making their -software Free. However, most of the Free Software in existence \emph{is} -copyrighted. In most cases (particularly in that of FSF and the GNU -Project), this was done due to very careful planning. - -Software released into the public domain does grant freedom to those users -who receive the standard versions on which the original author disclaimed -copyright. However, since the work is not copyrighted, any non-trivial -modification made to the work is fully copyrightable. - -Free Software released into the public domain initially is Free, and -perhaps some who modify the software choose to place their work into the -public domain as well. However, over time, some entities will choose to -proprietarize their modified versions. The public domain body of software -feeds the proprietary software. The public commons disappears, because -fewer and fewer entities have an incentive to contribute back to the -commons. They know that any of their competitors can proprietarize their -enhancements. Over time, almost no interesting work is left in the public -domain, because nearly all new work is done by proprietarization. - -A legal mechanism is needed to redress this problem. FSF was in fact -originally created primarily as a legal entity to defend software freedom, -and that work of of defending software freedom is a substantial part of -its work today. Specifically because of this ``embrace, proprietarize and -extend'' cycle, FSF made a conscious choice to copyright its Free Software, -and then license it under ``copyleft'' terms, and many, including the -developers of the kernel named Linux, have chosen to follow this paradigm. - -Copyleft is a legal strategy to defend, uphold and propagate software -freedom. The basic technique of copyleft is as follows: copyright the -software, license it under terms that give all the software freedoms, but -use the copyright law controls to ensure that all who receive a copy of -the software have equal rights and freedom. In essence, copyleft grants -freedom, but forbids others to forbid that freedom from anyone else along -the distribution and modification chains. - -Copyleft is a general concept. Much like ideas for what a computer might -do must be \emph{implemented} by a program that actually does the job, so -too must copyleft be implemented in some concrete legal structure. -``Share and share alike'' is a phrase that is often enough to explain the -concept behind copyleft, but to actually make it work in the real world, a -true implementation in legal text must exist. The GPL is the primary -implementation of copyleft in copyright licensing language. - -\section{An Ecosystem of Equality} - -The GPL uses copyright law to defend freedom and equally ensure users' -rights. This ultimately creates an ecosystem of equality for both -business and non-commercial users. - -\subsection{The Non-Commercial Ecosystem} - -A GPL'ed code base becomes a center of a vibrant development and user -community. Traditionally, volunteers, operating non-commercially out of -keen interest or ``scratch an itch'' motivations, produce initial versions -of a GPL'ed system. Because of the efficient distribution channels of the -Internet, any useful GPL'ed system is adopted quickly by non-commercial -users. - -Fundamentally, the early release and quick distribution of the software -gives birth to a thriving non-commercial community. Users and developers -begin sharing bug reports and bug fixes across a shared intellectual -commons. Users can trust the developers, because they know that if the -developers fail to address their needs or abandon the project, the GPL -ensures that someone else has the right to pick up development. -Developers know that the users cannot redistribute their software without -passing along the rights granted by GPL, so they are assured that every -one of their users is treated equally. - -Because of the symmetry and fairness inherent in GPL'ed distribution, -nearly every GPL'ed package in existence has a vibrant non-commercial user -and developer base. - -\subsection{The Commercial Ecosystem} - -By the same token, nearly all established GPL'ed software systems have a -vibrant commercial community. Nearly every GPL'ed system that has gained -wide adoption from non-commercial users and developers eventually begins -to fuel a commercial system around that software. - -For example, consider the Samba file server system that allows Unix-like -systems (including GNU/Linux) to serve files to Microsoft Windows systems. -Two graduate students originally developed Samba in their spare time and -it was deployed non-commercially in academic environments. However, very -soon for-profit companies discovered that the software could work for them -as well, and their system administrators began to use it in place of -Microsoft Windows NT file-servers. This served to lower the cost of -running such servers by orders of magnitude. There was suddenly room in -Windows file-server budgets to hire contractors to improve Samba. Some of -the first people hired to do such work were those same two graduate -students who originally developed the software. - -The non-commercial users, however, were not concerned when these two -fellows began collecting paychecks off of their GPL'ed work. They knew -that because of the nature of the GPL that improvements that were -distributed in the commercial environment could easily be folded back into -the standard version. Companies are not permitted to proprietarize -Samba, so the non-commercial users, and even other commercial users are -safe in the knowledge that the software freedom ensured by GPL will remain -protected. - -Commercial developers also work in concert with non-commercial developers. -Those two now-long-since graduated students continue to contribute to -Samba altruistically, but also get work doing it. Priorities change when a -client is in the mix, but all the code is contributed back to the -standard version. Meanwhile, many other individuals have gotten involved -non-commercially as developers, because they want to ``cut their teeth on -Free Software'' or because the problems interest them. When they get good -at it, perhaps they will move on to another project or perhaps they will -become commercial developers of the software themselves. - -No party is a threat to another in the GPL software scenario because -everyone is on equal ground. The GPL protects rights of the commercial -and non-commercial contributors and users equally. The GPL creates trust, -because it is a level playing field for all. - -\subsection{Law Analogy} - -In his introduction to Stallman's \emph{Free Software, Free Society}, -Lawrence Lessig draws an interesting analogy between the law and Free -Software. He argues that the laws of a Free society must be protected -much like the GPL protects software. So that I might do true justice to -Lessig's argument, I quote it verbatim: - -\begin{quotation} - -A ``free society'' is regulated by law. But there are limits that any free -society places on this regulation through law: No society that kept its -laws secret could ever be called free. No government that hid its -regulations from the regulated could ever stand in our tradition. Law -controls. But it does so justly only when visibly. And law is visible -only when its terms are knowable and controllable by those it regulates, -or by the agents of those it regulates (lawyers, legislatures). - -This condition on law extends beyond the work of a legislature. Think -about the practice of law in American courts. Lawyers are hired by their -clients to advance their clients' interests. Sometimes that interest is -advanced through litigation. In the course of this litigation, lawyers -write briefs. These briefs in turn affect opinions written by judges. -These opinions decide who wins a particular case, or whether a certain law -can stand consistently with a constitution. - -All the material in this process is free in the sense that Stallman means. -Legal briefs are open and free for others to use. The arguments are -transparent (which is different from saying they are good) and the -reasoning can be taken without the permission of the original lawyers. -The opinions they produce can be quoted in later briefs. They can be -copied and integrated into another brief or opinion. The ``source code'' -for American law is by design, and by principle, open and free for anyone -to take. And take lawyers do---for it is a measure of a great brief that -it achieves its creativity through the reuse of what happened before. The -source is free; creativity and an economy is built upon it. - -This economy of free code (and here I mean free legal code) doesn't starve -lawyers. Law firms have enough incentive to produce great briefs even -though the stuff they build can be taken and copied by anyone else. The -lawyer is a craftsman; his or her product is public. Yet the crafting is -not charity. Lawyers get paid; the public doesn't demand such work -without price. Instead this economy flourishes, with later work added to -the earlier. - -We could imagine a legal practice that was different---briefs and -arguments that were kept secret; rulings that announced a result but not -the reasoning. Laws that were kept by the police but published to no one -else. Regulation that operated without explaining its rule. - -We could imagine this society, but we could not imagine calling it -``free.'' Whether or not the incentives in such a society would be better -or more efficiently allocated, such a society could not be known as free. -The ideals of freedom, of life within a free society, demand more than -efficient application. Instead, openness and transparency are the -constraints within which a legal system gets built, not options to be -added if convenient to the leaders. Life governed by software code should -be no less. - -Code writing is not litigation. It is better, richer, more -productive. But the law is an obvious instance of how creativity and -incentives do not depend upon perfect control over the products created. -Like jazz, or novels, or architecture, the law gets built upon the work -that went before. This adding and changing is what creativity always is. -And a free society is one that assures that its most important resources -remain free in just this sense.\footnote{This quotation is Copyright - \copyright{} 2002, Lawrence Lessig. It is licensed under the terms of - \href{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/}{the ``Attribution - License'', version 1.0} or any later version as published by Creative - Commons.} -\end{quotation} - -In essence, lawyers are paid to service the shared commons of legal -infrastructure. Few citizens defend themselves in court or write their -own briefs (even though they are legally permitted to do so) because -everyone would prefer to have an expert do that job. - -The Free Software economy is a market that is ripe for experts. It -functions similarly to other well established professional fields like the -law. The GPL, in turn, serves as the legal scaffolding that permits the -creation of this vibrant commercial and non-commercial Free Software -economy. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Copying, Modifying and Redistributing} - -This chapter begins the deep discussion of the details of the terms of -GPL\@. In this chapter, we consider the core terms: GPL \S\S 0--3. These -are the sections of the GPL that fundamentally define the legal details of -how software freedom is respected. - -\section{GPL \S 0: Freedom to Run} -\label{GPLs0} - -\S 0, the opening section of GPL, sets forth that the work is governed by -copyright law. It specifically points out that it is the ``copyright -holder'' who decides if a work is licensed under its terms, and explains -how the copyright holder might indicate this fact. - -A bit more subtly, \S 0 makes an inference that copyright law is the only -system under which it is governed. Specifically, it states: -\begin{quote} -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. -\end{quote} -In essence, the license governs \emph{only} those activities and all other -activities are unrestricted, provided that no other agreements trump GPL -(which they cannot; see Sections~\ref{GPLs6} and~\ref{GPLs7}). This is -very important, because the Free Software community heavily supports -users' rights to ``fair use'' and ``unregulated use'' of copyrighted -material. GPL asserts through this clause that it supports users' rights -to fair and unregulated uses. - -Fair use of copyrighted material is an established legal doctrine that -permits certain activities. Discussion of the various types of fair use -activity are beyond the scope of this tutorial. However, one important -example of fair use is the right to quote a very few lines (less than -seven or so), and reuse them as you with without licensing restrictions. - -Fair use is a doctrine established by the courts or by statute. By -contrast, unregulated uses are those that are not covered by the statue -nor determined by a court to be covered, but are common and enjoyed by -many users. An example of unregulated use is reading a printout of the -program's source code like an instruction book for the purpose of learning -how to be a better programmer. - -\medskip - -Thus, the GPL protects users fair and unregulated use rights precisely by -not attempting to cover them. Furthermore, the GPL ensures the freedom -to run specifically by stating the following: -\begin{quote} -The act of running the Program is not restricted -\end{quote} -Thus, users are explicitly given the freedom to run by \S 0. - -\medskip - -The bulk of \S 0 not yet discussed gives definitions for other terms used -throughout. The only one worth discussing in detail is ``work based on -the Program''. The reason this definition is particularly interesting is -not for the definition itself, which is rather straightforward, but the -because it clears up a common misconception about the GPL\@. - -The GPL is often mistakenly criticized because it fails to give a -definition of ``derivative work''. In fact, it would be incorrect and -problematic if the GPL attempted to define this. A copyright license, in -fact, has no control over what may or may not be a derivative work. This -matter is left up to copyright law, not the licenses that utilize it. - -It is certainly true that copyright law as a whole does not propose clear -and straightforward guidelines for what is and is not a derivative -software work under copyright law. However, no copyright license --- not -even the GNU GPL -- can be blamed for this. Legislators and court -opinions must give us guidance to decide the border cases. - -\section{GPL \S 1: Verbatim Copying} -\label{GPLs1} - -GPL \S 1 covers the matter of redistributing the source code of a program -exactly as it was received. This section is quite straightforward. -However, there are a few details worth noting here. - -The phrase ``in any medium'' is important. This, for example, gives the -freedom to publish a book that is the printed copy of the program's source -code. It also allows for changes in the medium of distribution. Some -vendors may ship Free Software on a CD, but others may place it right on -the hard drive of a pre-installed computer. Any such redistribution media -is allowed. - -Preservation of copyright notice and license notifications are mentioned -specifically in \S 1. These are in some ways the most important part of -the redistribution, which is why they are mentioned by name. The GPL -always strives to make it abundantly clear to anyone who receives the -software what its license is. The goal is to make sure users know their -rights and freedoms under GPL and to leave no reason that someone would be -surprised that the software she got was licensed under GPL\@. Thus -throughout the GPL, there are specific reference to the importance of -notifying others down the distribution chain that they have rights under -GPL. - -Also mentioned by name is the warranty disclaimer. Most people today do -not believe that software comes with any warranty. Notwithstanding the -proposed state-level UCITA bills (which have never obtained widespread -adoption), there are little or no implied warranties with software. -However, just to be on the safe side, GPL clearly disclaims them, and the -GPL requires redistributors to keep the disclaimer very visible. (See -Sections~\ref{GPLs11} and~\ref{GPLs12} of this tutorial for more on GPL's -warranty disclaimers.) - -Note finally that \S 1 begins to set forth the important defense of -commercial freedom. \S 1 clearly states that in the case of verbatim -copies, one may make money. Redistributors are fully permitted to charge -for the redistribution of copies of Free Software. In addition, they may -provide the warranty protection that the GPL disclaims as an additional -service for a fee. (See Section~\ref{Business Models} for more discussion -on making a profit from Free Software redistribution.) - -\section{GPL \S 2: Share and Share Alike} - -For many, this is where the ``magic'' happens that defends software -freedom along the distribution chain. \S 2 is the only place in the GPL -that governs the modification controls of copyright law. If someone -modifies a GPL'ed program, she is bound in the making those changes by \S -2. The goal here is to ensure that the body of GPL'ed software, as it -continues and develops, remains Free as in freedom. - -To achieve that goal, \S 2 first sets forth that the rights of -redistribution of modified versions are the same as those for verbatim -copying, as presented in \S 1. Therefore, the details of charging, -keeping copyright notices intact, and other \S 1 provisions are in tact -here as well. However, there are three additional requirements. - -The first (\S 2(a)) requires that modified files carry ``prominent -notices'' explaining what changes were made and the date of such changes. -The goal here is not to put forward some specific way of marking changes, -or controlling the process of how changes get made. Primarily, \S 2(a) -seeks to ensure that those receiving modified versions know what path it -took to them. For some users, it is important to know that they are using -the standard version of program, because while there are many advantages -to using a fork, there are a few disadvantages. Users should be informed -about the historical context of the software version they use, so that -they can make proper support choices. Finally, \S 2(a) serves an academic -purpose --- ensuring that future developers can use a diachronic approach -to understand the software. - -\medskip - -The second requirement (\S 2(b)) contains the four short lines that embody -the legal details of ``share and share alike''. These 46 words are -considered by some to be the most worthy of careful scrutiny. It is worth -the effort to carefully understand what each clause is saying, because \S -2(b) can be a source of great confusion when not properly understood. - -In considering \S 2(b), first note the qualifier: it only applies to -derivative works that ``you distribute or publish''. Despite years of -education efforts by FSF on this matter, many still believe that modifiers -of GPL'ed software are required by the license to publish or otherwise -share their changes. On the contrary, \S 2(b) {\bf does not apply if} the -changes are never distributed. Indeed, the freedom to make private, -personal, unshared changes to software for personal use only should be -protected and defended\footnote{FSF does maintain that there is an {\bf - ethical} obligation to redistribute changes that are generally useful, - and often encourages companies and individuals to do so. However, there - is a clear distinction between what one {\bf ought} to do and what one - {\bf must} do.}. - -Next, we again encounter the same matter that appears in \S 0, in the -following text: -\begin{quote} -... that in whole or part contains or is derived from the Program or any - part thereof, -\end{quote} -Again, the GPL relies here on what the copyright law says is a derivative -work. If, under copyright law, the modified version ``contains or is -derived from'' the GPL'ed software, then the requirements of \S 2(b) -apply. The GPL invokes its control as a copyright license over the -modification of the work in combination with its control over distribution -of the work. - -The final clause of \S 2(b) describes what the licensee must do if she is -distributing or publishing a work that is deemed a derivative work under -copyright law --- namely, the following: -\begin{quote} -[The work must] be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties -under the terms of this License. -\end{quote} -That is probably the most tightly-packed phrase in all of the GPL\@. -Consider each subpart carefully. - -The work ``as a whole'' is what is to be licensed. This is an important -point that \S 2 spends an entire paragraph explaining; thus this phrase is -worthy of a lengthy discussion here. As a programmer modifies a software -program, she generates new copyrighted material --- fixing expressions of -ideas into the tangible medium of electronic file storage. That -programmer is indeed the copyright holder of those new changes. However, -those changes are part and parcel to the original worked distributed to -the programmer under GPL\@. Thus, the license of the original work -affects the license of the new whole derivative work. - -% {\cal I} -\newcommand{\gplusi}{$\mathcal{G\!\!+\!\!I}$} -\newcommand{\worki}{$\mathcal{I}$} -\newcommand{\workg}{$\mathcal{G}$} - -It is certainly possible to take an existing independent work (called -\worki{}) and combine it with a GPL'ed program (called \workg{}). The -license of \worki{}, when it is distributed as a separate and independent -work, remains the prerogative of the copyright holder of \worki{}. -However, when \worki{} is combined with \workg{}, it produces a new work -that is the combination of the two (called \gplusi{}). The copyright of -this derivative work, \gplusi{}, is jointly held by the original copyright -holder of each of the two works. - -In this case, \S 2 lays out the terms by which \gplusi{} may be -distributed and copied. By default, under copyright law, the copyright -holder of \worki{} would not have been permitted to distribute \gplusi{}; -copyright law forbids it without the expressed permission of the copyright -holder of \workg{}. (Imagine, for a moment, if \workg{} were a Microsoft -product --- would they give you permission to create and distribute -\gplusi{} without paying them a hefty sum?) The license of \workg{}, the -GPL, sets forth ahead of time options for the copyright holder of \worki{} -who may want to create and distribute \gplusi{}. This pre-granted -permission to create and distribute derivative works, provided the terms -of GPL are upheld, goes far above and beyond the permissions that one -would get with a typical work not covered by a copyleft license. Thus, to -say that this restriction is any way unreasonable is simply ludicrous. - -\medskip - -The next phrase of note in \S 2(b) is ``licensed ... at no charge''. This -is a source of great confusion to many. Not a month goes by that FSF does -not receive an email that claims to point out ``a contradiction in GPL'' -because \S 2 says that redistributors cannot charge for modified versions -of GPL'ed software, but \S 1 says that they can. The ``at no charge'' -means not that redistributors cannot charge for performing the acts -governed by copyright law\footnote{Recall that you could by default charge - for any acts not governed by copyright law, because the license controls - are confined by copyright.}, but rather that they cannot charge a fee -for the \emph{license itself}. In other words, redistributors of -(modified and unmodified) GPL'ed works may charge any amount they choose -for performing the modifications on contract or the act of transferring -the copy to the customer, but they may not charge a separate licensing fee -for the software. - -\S 2(b) further states that the software must ``be licensed ... to all -third parties''. This too has led to some confusions, and feeds the -misconception mentioned earlier --- that all modified versions must made -available to the public at large. However, the text here does not say -that. Instead, it says that the licensing under terms of the GPL must -extend to anyone who might, through the distribution chain, receive a copy -of the software. Distribution to all third parties is not mandated here, -but \S 2(b) does require redistributors to license the derivative works in -a way that is extends to all third parties who may ultimately receive a -copy of the software. - -In summary, \S 2(b) says what terms under which the third parties must -receive this no-charge license. Namely, they receive it ``under the terms -of this License'', the GPL. When an entity \emph{chooses} to redistribute -a derivative work of GPL'ed software, the license of that whole derivative -work must be GPL and only GPL\@. In this manner, \S 2(b) dovetails nicely -with \S 6 (as discussed in Section~\ref{GPLs6} of this tutorial). - -\medskip - -The final paragraph of \S 2 is worth special mention. It is possible and -quite common to aggregate various software programs together on one -distribution medium. Computer manufacturers do this when they ship a -pre-installed hard drive, and GNU/Linux distribution vendors do this to -give a one-stop CD or URL for a complete operating system with necessary -applications. The GPL very clearly permits such ``mere aggregation'' with -programs under any license. Despite what you hear from its critics, the -GPL is nothing like a virus, not only because the GPL is good for you and -a virus is bad for you, but also because simple contact with a GPL'ed -code-base does not impact the license of other programs. Actual effort -must be expended by a programmer to cause a work to fall under the terms -of the GPL. Redistributors are always welcome to simply ship GPL'ed -software alongside proprietary software or other unrelated Free Software, -as long as the terms of GPL are adhered to for those packages that are -truly GPL'ed. - -\section{GPL \S 3: Producing Binaries} - -% FIXME: need name of a novelist who writes very obscurely and obliquely. - -Software is a strange beast when compared to other copyrightable works. -It is currently impossible to make a film or a book that can be truly -obscured. Ultimately, the full text of a novel, even one written by -Donald Barthelme, must presented to the reader as words in some -human-readable language so that they can enjoy the work. A film, even one -directed by David Lynch, must be perceptible by human eyes and ears to -have any value. - -Software is not so. While the source code, the human-readable -representation of software is of keen interest to programmers, users and -programmers alike cannot make the proper use of software in that -human-readable form. Binary code --- the ones and zeros that the computer -can understand --- must be predicable and attainable for the software to -be fully useful. Without the binaries, be they in object or executable -form, the software serves only the didactic purposes of computer science. - -Under copyright law, binary representations of the software are simply -derivative works of the source code. Applying a systematic process (i.e., -``compilation'') to a work of source code yields binary code. The binary -code is now a new work of expression fixed in the tangible medium of -electronic file storage. - -Therefore, for GPL'ed software to be useful, the GPL, since it governs the -rules for creation of derivative works, must grant permission for the -generation of binaries. Furthermore, notwithstanding the relative -popularity of source-based GNU/Linux distributions like Gentoo, users find -it extremely convenient to receive distribution of binary software. Such -distribution is the redistribution of derivative works of the software's -source code. \S 3 addresses the matter of creation and distribution of -binary versions. - -Under \S 3, binary versions may be created and distributed under the terms -of \S\S 1--2, so all the material previously discussed applies here. -However, \S 3 must go a bit further. Access to the software's source code -is an incontestable prerequisite for the exercise of the fundamental -freedoms to modify and improve the software. Making even the most trivial -changes to a software program at the binary level is effectively -impossible. \S 3 must ensure that the binaries are never distributed -without the source code, so that these freedoms are ensured to be passed -along the distribution chain. - -\S 3 permits distribution of binaries, and then offers three options for -distribution of source code along with binaries. The most common and the -least complicated is the option given under \S 3(a). - -\S 3(a) offers the option to directly accompany the source code alongside -the distribution of the binaries. This is by far the most convenient -option for most distributors, because it means that the source-code -provision obligations are fully completed at the time of binary -distribution (more on that later). - -Under \S 3(a), the source code provided must be the ``corresponding source -code''. Here ``corresponding'' primarily means that the source code -provided must be that code used to produce the binaries being distributed. -That source code must also be ``complete''. A later paragraph of \S 3 -explains in detail what is meant by ``complete''. In essence, it is all -the material that a programmer of average skill would need to actually use -the source code to produce the binaries she has received. Complete source -is required so that, if the licensee chooses, she should be able to -exercise her freedoms to modify and redistribute changes. Without the -complete source, it would not be possible to make changes that were -actually directly derived from the version received. - -Furthermore, \S 3 is defending against a tactic that has in fact been seen -in FSF's GPL enforcement. Under GPL, if you pay a high price for a copy -of GPL'ed binaries (which comes with corresponding source, of course), you -have the freedom to redistribute that work at any fee you choose, or not -at all. Sometimes, companies attempt a GPL-violating cozenage whereby -they produce very specialized binaries (perhaps for an obscure -architecture), and then giving source code that does correspond, but not -giving the ``incantations'' and build plans they used to make that source -compile into the specialized binaries. Therefore, \S 3 that the source -code include ``meta-material'' like scripts, interface definitions, and -other material that is used to ``control compilation and installation'' of -the binaries. In this manner, those further down the distribution chain -are assured that they have the unabated freedom to build their own -derivative works from the sources provided. - -FSF (as authors of GPL) realizes that software distribution comes in many -forms. Embedded manufacturers, for example, have the freedom to put -GPL'ed software into their PDAs with very tight memory and space -constraints. In such cases, putting the source right alongside the -binaries on the machine itself might not be an option. While it is -recommended that this be the default way that people comply with GPL, the -GPL does provide options when such distribution is infeasible. - -\S 3, therefore, allows source code to be provided on any physical -``medium customarily used for software interchange''. By design, this -phrase covers a broad spectrum. At best, FSF can viably release a new GPL -every ten years or so. Thus, phrases like this must be adaptive to -changes in the technology. When GPL version 2 was first published in June -1991, distribution on magnetic tape was still common, and CD was -relatively new. Today, CD is the default, and for larger systems DVD-R is -gaining adoption. This language must adapt with changing technology. - -Meanwhile, the binding created by the word ``customarily'' is key. Many -incorrectly believe that distributing binary on CD and source on the -Internet is acceptable. In the corporate world, it is indeed customary to -simply download CDs worth of data over a T1 or email large file -attachments. However, even today in the USA, many computer users with -CD-ROM drives are not connected to the Internet, and most people connected -to the Internet are connected via a 56K dial-up connection. Downloading -CDs full of data is not customary for them in the least. In some cities -in Africa, computers are becoming more common, but Internet connectivity -is still available only at a few centralized locations. Thus, the -``customs'' here have must have a worldwide scope in context, and simply -providing source on the Internet --- while it is a kind, friendly and -useful thing to do --- is not usually sufficient. - -Note, however, a major exception to this rule, given by the last paragraph -of \S 3. \emph{If} distribution of the binary files is made only on the -Internet (i.e., ``from a designated place''), \emph{then} simply providing -the source code right alongside the binaries in the same place is -sufficient to comply with \S 3. - -\medskip - -As is shown above, Under \S 3(a), embedded manufacturers can put the -binaries on the device and ship the source code along on a CD\@. However, -sometimes this turns out to be too costly. Including a CD with every -device could prove too costly, and may practically (although not legally) -prohibit using GPL'ed software. For this situation and others like it, \S -3(b) is available. - -\S 3(b) allows a distributor of binaries to instead provide a written -offer for source code alongside those binaries. This is useful in two -specific ways. First, it may turn out that most users do not request the -source, and thus the cost of producing the CDs is saved --- a financial -and environmental windfall. In addition, along with a \S 3(b) compliant -offer for source, a binary distributor might choose to \emph{also} give a -URL for source code. Many who would otherwise need a CD with source might -turn out to have those coveted high bandwidth connections, and are able to -download the source instead --- again yielding environmental and financial -windfalls. - -However, note that regardless of how many users prefer to get the source -online, that \S 3(b) does place lasting long-term obligations on the -binary distributor. The binary distributor must be prepared for three -years to honor that offer for source, and ship it out (just as they would -have had to do under \S 3(a)) at a moment's notice when they receive such -a request. There is real organizational cost here: support engineers for -three years must be trained how to route source requests, and source CD -images for every release version for the last three years must be kept on -hand to burn such CDs quickly. The requests might not even come from -actual customers; the offer for source must be valid for ``any third -party''. - -That phrase is another place where some get confused --- thinking again -that full public distribution of source is required. The offer for source -must be valid for ``any third party'' because of the freedoms of -redistribution granted by \S\S 1--2. A company may ship a binary image -and an offer for source to only one customer. However, under GPL, that -customer has the right to redistribute that software to the world if she -likes. When she does, that customer has an obligation to make sure that -those who receive the software from her can exercise their freedoms under -GPL --- including the freedom to modify, rebuild, and redistribute the -source code. - -\S 3(c) is created to save her some trouble, because by itself \S 3(b) -would unfairly favor large companies. compromise. \S 3(b) allows the -separation of the binary software from the key tool that people can use -to exercise their freedom. The GPL permits this separation because it is -good for redistributors, and those users who turn out not to need the -source. However, to ensure equal rights for all software users, anyone -along the distribution chain must have the right to get the source and -exercise those freedoms that require it. - -Meanwhile, \S 3(b)'s compromise primarily benefits companies who -distribute binary software commercially. Without \S 3(c), that benefit -would be at the detriment of the companies' customers; the burden of -source code provision would be unfairly shifted to the companies' -customers. A customer, who had received binaries with a \S 3(b)-compliant -offer, would be required under GPL (sans \S 3(c)) to acquire the source, -merely to give a copy of the software to a friend who needed it. \S 3(c) -reshifts this burden to entity who benefits from \S 3(b). - -\S 3(c) allows those who undertake \emph{non-commercial} distribution to -simply pass along a \S 3(b)-compliant source code offer. The customer who -wished to give a copy to her friend can now do so without provisioning the -source, as long as she gives that offer to her friend. By contrast, if -she wanted to go into business for herself selling CDs of that software, -she would have to acquire the source and either comply via \S 3(a), or -write her own \S 3(b)-compliant source offer. - -This process is precisely the reason why a \S 3(b) source offer must be -valid for all third parties. At the time the offer is made, there is no -way of knowing who might end up non-commercially receiving a copy of the -software. Companies who choose to comply via \S 3(b) must thus be -prepared to honor all incoming source code requests. For this and the -many other additional necessary complications under \S\S 3(b--c), it is -only rarely a better option than complying via \S 3(a). - - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Defending Freedom On Many Fronts} - -The last chapter presented the core freedom-defending provisions of GPL\@, -which are in \S\S 0--3. \S\S 4--7 of the GPL are designed to ensure that -\S\S 0--3 are not infringed, are enforceable, are kept to the confines of -copyright law and are not trumped by other copyright agreements or -components of other entirely separate legal systems. In short, while \S\S -0--3 are the parts of the license that defend the freedoms of users and -programmers, \S\S 4--7 are the parts of the license that keep the playing -field clear so that \S\S 0--3 can do their jobs. - -\section{GPL \S 4: Termination on Violation} -\label{GPLs4} - -\S 4 is GPL's termination clause. Upon first examination, it seems -strange for a license that has the goal of defending users and programmers -freedoms for perpetuity in an irrevocable way would have such a clause. -However, upon further examination, the difference between irrevocability -and this termination clause becomes clear. - -The GPL is irrevocable in the sense that once a copyright holder grants -rights for someone to copy, modify and redistribute the software under -terms of the GPL, they cannot later revoke that grant. Since the GPL has -no provision allowing the copyright holder to take such a prerogative, the -license is granted as long as the copyright remains in effect\footnote{In - the USA, due to unfortunate legislation, the length of copyright is - nearly perpetual, even though the Constitution forbids perpetual - copyright.}. The copyright holder has the right to relicense the same -work under different licenses (see Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} -of this tutorial), or to stop distributing the GPL'ed version (assuming \S -3(b) was never used), but the she may not revoke the rights under GPL -already granted. - -In fact, when an entity looses their right to copy, modify and distribute -GPL'ed software, it is because of their \emph{own actions}, not that of -the copyright holder. The copyright holder does not decided when \S 4 -termination occurs (if ever), the actions of the licensee does. - -Under copyright law, the GPL has granted various rights and freedoms to -the licensee to perform specific types of copying, modification, and -redistribution. By default, all other types of copying, modification, and -redistribution are prohibited. \S 4 says that if you undertake any of -those other types (e.g., redistributing binary-only in violation of \S 3), -then all rights under the license --- even those otherwise permitted for -those who have not violated --- terminate automatically. - -\S 4 gives GPL teeth. If licensees fail to adhere to the license, then -they are stuck. They must to completely cease and desist from all -copying, modification and distribution of that GPL'ed software. - -At that point, violating licensees must gain the forgiveness of the -copyright holder to have their rights restored. Alternatively, they could -negotiate another agreement, separate from GPL, with the copyright -holder. Both are common practice. - -At FSF, it is part of the mission to spread software freedom. When FSF -enforces GPL, the goal is to bring the violator back into compliance as -quickly as possible, and redress the damage caused by the violation. -That is FSF's steadfast position in a violation negotiation --- comply -with the license and respect freedom. - -However, other entities who do not share the full ethos of software -freedom as institutionalized by FSF pursue GPL violations differently. MySQL -AB, a company that produces the GPL'ed MySQL database, upon discovering -GPL violations typically negotiates a proprietary software license -separately for a fee. While this practice is not one that FSF would ever -consider undertaking or even endorsing, it is a legal way for copyright -holders to proceed. - -\section{GPL \S 5: Acceptance, Copyright Style} -\label{GPLs5} - -\S 5 brings us to perhaps the most fundamental misconception and common -confusion about GPL\@. Because of the prevalence of proprietary software, -most users, programmers, and lawyers alike tend to be more familiar with -EULAs. EULAs are believed by their authors to be contracts, requiring -formal agreement between the licensee and the software distributor to be -valid. This has led to mechanisms like ``shrink-wrap'' and ``click-wrap'' -as mechanisms to perform acceptance ceremonies with EULAs. - -The GPL does not need contract law to ``transfer rights''. No rights are -transfered between parties. By contrast, the GPL is permission slip to -undertake activities that would otherwise been prohibited by copyright law. -As such, it needs no acceptance ceremony; the licensee is not even -required to accept the license. - -However, without the GPL, the activities of copying, modifying and -distributing the software would have otherwise been prohibited. So, the -GPL says that you only accepted the license by undertaking activities that -you would have otherwise been prohibited without your license under GPL\@. -This is a certainly subtle point, and requires a mindset quite different -from the contractual approach taken by EULA authors. - -An interesting side benefit to \S 5 is that the bulk of users of Free -Software are not required to accept the license. Undertaking fair and -unregulated use of the work, for example, does not bind you to the GPL, -since you are not engaging in activity that is otherwise controlled by -copyright law. Only when you engage in those activities that might have an -impact on the freedom of others does license acceptance occur and the -terms begin to bind you to fair and equitable sharing of the software. In -other words, the GPL only kicks in when it needs to for the sake of -freedom. - -\section{GPL \S 6: GPL, My One and Only} -\label{GPLs6} - -A point that was glossed over in Section~\ref{GPLs4}'s discussion of \S 4 -was the irrevocable nature of the GPL\@. The GPL is indeed irrevocable, -and it is made so formally \S 6. - -The first sentence in \S 6 ensures that as software propagates down the -distribution chain, that each licensor can pass along the license to each -new licensee. Under \S 6, the act of distributing automatically grants a -license from the original licensor to the next recipient. This creates a -chain of grants that ensure that everyone in the distribution has rights -under the GPL\@. In a mathematical sense, this bounds the bottom --- -making sure that future licensees get no fewer rights than than the -licensee before. - -The second sentence of \S 6 does the opposite; it bounds from the top. It -prohibits any licensor along the distribution chain from placing -additional restrictions on the user. In other words, no additional -requirements may trump the rights and freedoms given by GPL\@. - -The final sentence of \S 6 makes it abundantly clear that no individual -entity in the distribution chain is responsible for the compliance of any -other. This is particularly important for non-commercial users who have -passed along a source offer under \S 3(c), as they cannot be assured that -the issuer of the offer will honor their \S 3 obligations. - -In short, \S 6 says that your license for the software is your one and -only copyright license allowing you to copy, modify and distribute the -software. - -\section{GPL \S 7: ``Give Software Liberty of Give It Death!''} -\label{GPLs7} - -In essence, \S 7 is a verbosely worded way of saying for non-copyright -systems what \S 6 says for copyright. If there exists any reason that a -distributor knows of that would prohibit later licensees from exercising -their full rights under GPL, then distribution is prohibited. - -Originally, this was designed as the title of this section suggests --- as -a last ditch effort to make sure that freedom was upheld. However, in -modern times, it has come to give much more. Now that the body of GPL'ed -software is so large, patent holders who would want to be distributors of -GPL'ed software have a tough choice. They must choose between avoiding -distribution of GPL'ed software that exercises the teachings of their -patents, or grant a royalty-free, irrevocable, non-exclusive license to -those patents. Many companies, including IBM, the largest patent holder -in the world, have chosen the latter. - -Thus, \S 7 is rarely gives software death by stopping its distribution. -Instead, it is inspiring patent holders to share their patents in the same -freedom-defending way that they share their copyrighted works. - -\section{GPL \S 8: Excluding Unfreedonia} -\label{GPLs8} - -\S 8 is rarely used by copyright holders. Its intention is that, if -particular country, say Unfreedonia, grant particular patents or allow -copyrighted interfaces (no country to our knowledge even permits those -yet), that the GPL'ed software can continue in free and unabated -distribution in the countries where such controls do not exist. - -It is a partial ``out'' from \S 7. Without \S 8, if a copyright holder -knew of a patent in a particular country licensed in a GPL-incompatible -way, then she could not distribute under GPL, because the work would -legitimately end up in the hands of citizens of Unfreedonia. - -It is an inevitable but sad reality that some countries are freer than -others. \S 8 exists to permit distribution on those countries that are -free without otherwise negating parts of the license. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Odds, Ends, and Absolutely No Warranty} - -\S 0--7 constitute the freedom-defending terms of the GPL. The balance -of the GPL handles administrivia and issues concerning warranties and -liability. - -\section{GPL \S 9: FSF as stewards of GPL} -\label{GPLs9} - -FSF reserves the exclusive right to publish future versions of the GPL\@; -\S 9 expresses this. While the stewardship of the copyrights on the body -of GPL'ed software around the world is shared among thousands of -individuals and organizations, the license itself needs a single steward. -Forking of the code is often regrettable but basically innocuous. Forking -of licensing is disastrous. - -FSF has only released two versions of GPL --- in 1989 and 1991. GPL, -version 3, is under current internal drafting. FSF's plan is to have a -long and engaging comment period. The goal of GPL is defend freedom, and -a gigantic community depends on that freedom now. FSF hopes to take all -stakeholders' opinions under advisement. - -\section{GPL \S 10: Relicensing Permitted} -\label{GPLs10} - -\S 10 reminds the licensee of what is already implied by the nature of -copyright law. Namely, the copyright holder of a particular software -program has the prerogative to grant alternative agreements under separate -copyright licenses. - -\section{GPL \S 11: No Warranty} -\label{GPLs11} - -All warranty disclaimer language tends to be shouted in all capital -letters. Apparently, there was once a case where the disclaimer language -of an agreement was negated because it was not ``conspicuous'' to one of -the parties. Therefore, to make such language ``conspicuous'', people -started placing it in bold or capitalizing the entire text. It now seems -to be voodoo tradition of warranty disclaimer writing. - -Finally, one important point to remember when reading \S 11 is that \S 1 -permits the sale of warranty as an additional service, which \S 11 -affirms. - -\section{GPL, \S 12: Limitation of Liability} -\label{GPLs12} - -There are many types of warranties, and in some jurisdictions some of them -cannot be disclaimed. Therefore, usually agreements will have both a -warranty disclaimer and a limitation of liability, as we have in \S 12. -\S 11 thus gets rid of all implied warranties that can legally be -disavowed. \S 12, in turn, limits the liability of the actor for any -warranties that cannot legally be disclaimed in a particular jurisdiction. - -So ends the terms and conditions of the GNU General Public License. - - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Integrating the GPL into Business Practices} - -Since GPL'ed software is now extremely prevalent through the industry, it -is useful to has some basic knowledge about using GPL'ed software in -business and how to build business models around GPL'ed software. - -\section{Using GPL'ed Software In-House} - -A discussed in Sections~\ref{GPLs0} and~\ref{GPLs5} of this tutorial, the -GPL only governs the activities of copying, modifying and distributing the -software are not governed by the license. Thus, in FSF's view, simply -installing the software on a machine and using it is not controlled or -limited in any way by GPL\@. Using Free Software in general requires -substantially fewer agreements and less license compliance activity than -any known proprietary software. - -Even if a company engages heavily in copying the software throughout the -enterprise, such copying is not only permitted by \S\S 1 and 3, but it is -encouraged! If the company simply deploy unmodified (or even modified) -Free Software throughout the organization for its employees to use, the -obligations under the license are very minimal. Using Free Software has a -substantially lower cost of ownership --- both in licensing fees and in -licensing checking and handling -- than the proprietary software -equivalents. - -\section{Business Models} -\label{Business Models} - -Using Free Software in house is certainly helpful, but there is also a -thriving market for Free Software-oriented business models. There is the -traditional model of selling copies of Free Software distributions. Many -companies, including IBM and Red Hat, make substantial revenue from this -model. IBM primarily chooses this model because they have found that for -higher-end hardware, the cost of the profit made from proprietary software -licensing fees is negligible. The real profit is in the hardware, but it is -essential that software be stable, reliable and dependable, and the users -be allowed to have unfettered access to it. Free Software, and GPL'ed -software in particular (because IBM can be assured that proprietary -versions of the same software will not exists to compete on their -hardware) is the right choice. - -Red Hat has actually found that a ``convenience fee'' for Free Software, -when set at a reasonable price (around \$60 or so), can produce some -profit. Even though Red Hat's system is fully downloadable on their -website, people still go to local computer stores and buy copies of their -box set, which is simply a printed version of the manual (available under -a free license as well) and the Free Software system it documents. - -\medskip - -However, custom support, service, and software improvement contracts are -the most widely used models for GPL'ed software. The GPL is central to -their success, because it ensure that the code base remains common, and -that large and small companies are on equal footing for access to the -technology. Consider, for example, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). -Cygnus Solutions, a company started in the early 1990s, was able to grow -steadily simply by providing services for GCC --- mostly consisting of -porting GCC to new embedded chipset target platforms. Eventually, Cygnus -was so successful that it was purchased by Red Hat where it remains a -profitable division. - -However, there are very small companies like CodeSourcery, as well as -other medium sized companies like MontaVista and OpenTV that compete in -this space. Because the code-base is protect by GPL, it creates and -demands industry trust. Companies can cooperate on the software and -improve it for everyone. Meanwhile, companies who rely on GCC for their -work are happy to pay for improvements, and for ports to new target -platforms, and nearly all the changes fold back into the standard -versions, and those forks that exist remain freely available. - -\medskip - -\label{Proprietary Relicensing} - -A final common business model that is perhaps the most controversial is -proprietary relicensing of a GPL'ed code base. This is only an option for -software in which a particular entity is the sole copyright holder. As -discussed earlier in this tutorial, a copyright holder is permitted under -copyright law to license a software system under her copyright as many -different ways as she likes to as many different parties as she wishes. - -Some companies, such as MySQL AB and TrollTech, use this to their -financial advantage with regard to a GPL'ed code base. The standard -version is available from the company under the terms of the GPL\@. -However, parties can purchase separate proprietary software licensing for -a fee. - -This business model is problematic because it means that the GPL'ed code -base must be developed in a somewhat monolithic way, because volunteer -Free Software developers may be reluctant to assign their copyrights to -the company because it will not promise to always and forever license the -software as Free Software. Indeed, the company will surely use such code -contributions in proprietary versions licensed for fees. - -\section{Ongoing Compliance} - -GPL compliance is in fact a very simple matter -- much simpler than -typical proprietary software agreements and EULAs. Usually, the most -difficult hurdle is changing from a proprietary software mindset to one -that seeks to foster a community of sharing and mutual support. Certainly -complying with the GPL from a users' perspective gives substantially fewer -headaches than proprietary license compliance. - -For those who go into the business of distributing or distributing -modified versions of GPL'ed software, the burden is a bit higher, but not -by much. The glib answer that is that it is always easy to comply with -the GPL by releasing the whole product as Free Software. However, -admittedly to the dismay of FSF, many modern and complex software systems -are built using both proprietary and GPL'ed components that are not -legally derivative works of each other. Usually, in product development -with Free Software tools, sometimes it is easier simply to improve -existing GPL'ed application than to start from scratch. In exchange for -that benefit, the license requires that the modifier give back to the -commons that made the work easier. It is a reasonable trade-off, and it -is a way to help build a better world while also making a profit. - -Note that FSF does provide services to assist companies who need -assistance in complying with the GPL. You can contact FSF's GPL -Compliance Labs at $<$compliance@fsf.org$>$. - -\appendix - -\chapter{The GNU General Public License} - -\begin{center} -{\parindent 0in - -Version 2, June 1991 - -Copyright \copyright\ 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\bigskip - -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -\bigskip - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. -} -\end{center} - -\begin{center} -{\bf\large Preamble} -\end{center} - - -The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to -share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is -intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to -make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public -License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to -any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free -Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public -License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. - -When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. -Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the -freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service -if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, -that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; -and that you know you can do these things. - -To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to -deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These -restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you -distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. - -For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or -for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You -must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And -you must show them these terms so they know their rights. - -We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) -offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, -distribute and/or modify the software. - -Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that -everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If -the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its -recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any -problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' -reputations. - -Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. -We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will -individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program -proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must -be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. - -The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and -modification follow. - -\begin{center} -{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and - Modification} -\end{center} - - -%\renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alpha{enumi}} -\begin{enumerate} - -\addtocounter{enumi}{-1} - -\item - -This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice -placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the -terms of this General Public License. The ``Program'', below, refers to -any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either -the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a -work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with -modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, -translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification''.) -Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. - -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of -running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program -is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the -Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). -Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. - -\item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source - code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously - and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice - and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to - this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other - recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. - -You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you -may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. - -\item - -You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion -of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and -distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 -above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that -you changed the files and the date of any change. - -\item - -You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in -whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any -part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third -parties under the terms of this License. - -\item -If the modified program normally reads commands interactively -when run, you must cause it, when started running for such -interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an -announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a -notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide -a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under -these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this -License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but -does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on -the Program is not required to print an announcement.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If -identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, -and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in -themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those -sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you -distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based -on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of -this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the -entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. - -Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest -your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to -exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or -collective works based on the Program. - -In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program -with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of -a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under -the scope of this License. - -\item -You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, -under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of -Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable -source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections -1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three -years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your -cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete -machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be -distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium -customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer -to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is -allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you -received the program in object code or executable form with such -an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for -making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source -code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any -associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to -control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a -special exception, the source code distributed need not include -anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary -form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the -operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component -itself accompanies the executable. - -If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering -access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent -access to copy the source code from the same place counts as -distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not -compelled to copy the source along with the object code. - -\item -You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program -except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt -otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is -void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. -However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under -this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such -parties remain in full compliance. - -\item -You are not required to accept this License, since you have not -signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or -distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are -prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by -modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the -Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and -all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying -the Program or works based on it. - -\item -Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the -Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the -original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to -these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further -restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. -You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to -this License. - -\item -If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent -infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), -conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or -otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not -excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot -distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this -License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you -may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent -license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by -all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then -the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to -refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. - -If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under -any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to -apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other -circumstances. - -It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any -patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any -such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the -integrity of the free software distribution system, which is -implemented by public license practices. Many people have made -generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed -through that system in reliance on consistent application of that -system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing -to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot -impose that choice. - -This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to -be a consequence of the rest of this License. - -\item -If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in -certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the -original copyright holder who places the Program under this License -may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding -those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among -countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates -the limitation as if written in the body of this License. - -\item -The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions -of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will -be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to -address new problems or concerns. - -Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program -specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any -later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions -either of that version or of any later version published by the Free -Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of -this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software -Foundation. - -\item -If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free -programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author -to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free -Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes -make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals -of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and -of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc -No Warranty -} -\end{center} - -\item -{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty -for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when -otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties -provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed -or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of -merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as -to the quality and performance of the program is with you. Should the -program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing, -repair or correction.} - -\item -{\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing -will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or -redistribute the program as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, -including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising -out of the use or inability to use the program (including but not limited -to loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by -you or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any other -programs), even if such holder or other party has been advised of the -possibility of such damages.} - -\end{enumerate} - - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc End of Terms and Conditions} -\end{center} - - -\pagebreak[2] - -\section*{Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs} - -If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest -possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it -free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these -terms. - - To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to - attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey - the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the - ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. - -\begin{quote} -one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does. \\ -Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ - -This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify -it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by -the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or -(at your option) any later version. - -This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, -but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the -GNU General Public License for more details. - -You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License -along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software -Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. -\end{quote} - -Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. - -If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this -when it starts in an interactive mode: - -\begin{quote} -Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ -Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. \\ -This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it -under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. -\end{quote} - - -The hypothetical commands {\tt show w} and {\tt show c} should show the -appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands -you use may be called something other than {\tt show w} and {\tt show c}; -they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your -program. - -You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your -school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if -necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: - -\begin{quote} -Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program \\ -`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. \\ - -signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989 \\ -Ty Coon, President of Vice -\end{quote} - - -This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program -into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you -may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications -with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library -General Public License instead of this License. - -\end{document} - -% LocalWords: proprietarize redistributors sublicense yyyy Gnomovision EULAs -% LocalWords: Yoyodyne FrontPage improvers Berne copyrightable Stallman's GPLs -% LocalWords: Lessig Lessig's UCITA pre PDAs CDs reshifts GPL's Gentoo -% LocalWords: TrollTech diff --git a/GPL-LGPL/gpl-lgpl.tex b/GPL-LGPL/gpl-lgpl.tex deleted file mode 100644 index a129582..0000000 --- a/GPL-LGPL/gpl-lgpl.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3779 +0,0 @@ -% gpl-lgplg.tex -*- LaTeX -*- -% Tutorial Text for the Detailed Study and Analysis of GPL and LGPL course -% -% Copyright (C) 2003, 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -% License: CC-By-SA-4.0 - -% The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey, -% Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative -% Commons Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License. - -% This text is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but -% WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -% MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. - -% You should have received a copy of the license with this document in -% a file called 'CC-By-SA-4.0.txt'. If not, please visit -% https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode to receive -% the license text. - -\documentclass[12pt]{report} -% FILTER_PS: \input{generate-ps-file} -% FILTER_PDF: \input{generate-pdf-file} -% FILTER_HTML: \input{generate-html-file} -\input{one-inch-margins} -\usepackage{enumerate} - -%\setlength\parskip{0.7em} -%\setlength\parindent{0pt} - -\newcommand{\defn}[1]{\emph{#1}} - -%\pagestyle{empty} - -\begin{document} - -\begin{titlepage} - - -\begin{center} - -\vspace{.5in} - -{\Large -{\sc Detailed Study and Analysis of GPL and LGPL } \\ - -\vspace{.7in} - -Sponsored by the Free Software Foundation \\ - - -\vspace{.3in} - -Columbia Law School, New York, NY, USA \\ -\vspace{.1in} -Tuesday 20 January 2004 -} - -\vspace{.7in} - -{\large -Bradley M. Kuhn - -Executive Director - -Free Software Foundation -} - -\vspace{.3in} - - -{\large -Daniel Ravicher - -Senior Counsel - -Free Software Foundation -} - -\end{center} - -\vfill - -{\parindent 0in -Copyright \copyright{} 2003, 2004 \hspace{.2in} Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\vspace{.3in} - -The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey, -Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative Commons -Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License. A copy of that license is -available at \verb=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode=. -} - -\end{titlepage} - -\pagestyle{plain} -\pagenumbering{roman} - -\begin{abstract} - - -This one-day course gives a section-by-section explanation of the most -popular Free Software copyright license, the GNU General Public License -(GNU GPL), and teaches lawyers, software developers, managers and business -people how to use the GPL (and GPL'd software) successfully in a new Free -Software business and in existing, successful enterprises. - -Attendees should have a general familiarity with software development -processes. A vague understanding of how copyright law applies to software -is also helpful. The tutorial is of most interest to lawyers, software -developers and managers who run software businesses that modify and/or -redistribute software under terms of the GNU GPL (or who wish to do so in -the future), and those who wish to make use of existing GPL'd software in -their enterprise. - -Upon completion of the tutorial, successful attendees can expect to have -learned the following: - -\begin{itemize} - - \item the freedom-defending purpose of each term of the GNU GPL. - - \item the redistribution options under the GPL. - - \item the obligations when modifying GPL'd software. - - \item how to build a plan for proper and successful compliance with the GPL. - - \item the business advantages that the GPL provides. - - \item the most common business models used in conjunction with the GPL. - - \item how existing GPL'd software can be used in existing enterprises. - - \item the basics of the LGPL and how it differs from GPL. - - \item how best to understand the complexities regarding derivative - works of software. -\end{itemize} - -\bigskip - -These course materials are merely a summary of the highlights of the -course presented. Readers of this material should assume that they have -missed the bulk of the material, as the detailed discussion of about these -issues is the true education about GPL and LPGL\@. Merely reading this -material is akin to matriculating into a college course and read only the -textbook instead of going to class. - -\end{abstract} - -\tableofcontents - -\pagebreak - -\pagenumbering{arabic} - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{What Is Free Software?} - -Consideration of the GNU General Public License (herein, abbreviated as -\defn{GNU GPL} or just \defn{GPL}) must begin by first considering the broader -world of Free Software. The GPL was not created from a void, rather, -it was created to embody and defend a set of principles that were set -forth at the founding of the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation -(FSF)---the organization that upholds, defends and promotes the philosophy -of software freedom. A prerequisite for understanding the GPL and its -terms and conditions is a basic understanding of the principles behind it. -The GPL is unlike almost all other software licenses in that it is -designed to defend and uphold these principles. - -\section{The Free Software Definition} -\label{Free Software Definition} - -The Free Software Definition is set forth in full on FSF's website at -\verb0http://www.fsf.org/0 \verb0philosophy/free-sw.html0. This section -presents an abbreviated version that will focus on the parts that are most -pertinent to the terms of the GPL\@. - -A particular program is Free Software if it grants a particular user of -that program, the following freedoms: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item the freedom to run the program for any purpose. - -\item the freedom to change and modify the program. - -\item the freedom to copy and share the program. - -\item the freedom to share improved versions of the program. - -\end{itemize} - -The focus on ``a particular user'' is very pertinent here. It is not -uncommon for the same version of a specific program to grant these -freedoms to some subset of its user base, while others have none or only -some of these freedoms. Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} talks in -detail about how this can happen even if a program is released under the -GPL\@. - -Some people refer to software that gives these freedoms as ``Open -Source''. Besides having a different political focus than those who call -it Free Software\footnote{The political differences between the Free -Software Movement and the Open Source Movement are documented on FSF's -website at -{\tt http://www.fsf.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html}}, -those who call the software ``Open Source'' are focused on a side issue. -User access to the source code of a program is a prerequisite to make use -of the freedom to modify. However, the important issue is what freedoms -are granted in the license of that source code. Microsoft's ``Shared -Source'' program, for example, gives various types of access to source -code, but almost none of the freedoms described in this section. - -One key issue that is central to these freedoms is that there are no -restrictions on how these freedoms can be exercised. Specifically, users -and programmers can exercise these freedoms non-commercially or -commercially. Licenses that grant these freedoms for non-commercial -activities but prohibit them for commercial activities are considered -non-Free. - -In general, software for which most or all of these freedoms are -restricted in any way is called ``non-Free Software''. Typically, the -term ``proprietary software'' is used more or less interchangeably with -``non-Free Software''. Personally, I tend to use the term ``non-Free -Software'' to refer to non-commercial software that restricts freedom -(such as ``shareware'') and ``proprietary software'' to refer to -commercial software that restricts freedom (such as nearly all of -Microsoft's and Oracle's offerings). - -The remainder of this section considers each of the four freedoms in -detail. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Run} - -For a program to be Free Software, the freedom to run the program must be -completely unrestricted. This means that any use for that software that -the user can come up with must be permitted. Perhaps, for example, the -user has discovered an innovative new use for a particular program, one -that the programmer never could have predicted. Such a use must not be -restricted. - -It was once rare that this freedom was restricted by even proprietary -software; today it is not so rare. Most End User Licensing Agreements -(EULAs) that cover most proprietary software restrict some types of use. -For example, some versions of Microsoft's FrontPage software prohibit use -of the software to create websites that generate negative publicity for -Microsoft. Free Software has no such restrictions; everyone is free to -use Free Software for any purpose whatsoever. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Change and Modify} - -Free Software programs allow users to change, modify and adapt the -software to suit their needs. Access to the source code and related build -scripts are an essential part of this freedom. Without the source code -and the ability to build the binary applications from that source, the -freedom cannot be properly exercised. - -Programmers can take direct benefit from this freedom, and often do. -However, this freedom is also important to users who are not programmers. -Users must have the right to exercise this freedom indirectly in both -commercial and non-commercial settings. For example, users often seek -non-commercial help with the software on email lists and in users groups. -When they find such help, they must have the freedom to recruit -programmers who might altruistically assist them to modify their software. - -The commercial exercise of this freedom is also essential for users. Each -user, or group of users, must have the right to hire anyone they wish in a -competitive free market to modify and change the software. This means -that companies have a right to hire anyone they wish to modify their Free -Software. Additionally, such companies may contract with other companies -to commission software modification. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Copy and Share} - -Users may share Free Software in a variety of ways. Free Software -advocates work to eliminate a fundamental ethical dilemma of the software -age: choosing between obeying a software license, and friendship (by -giving away a copy of a program your friend who likes the software you are -using). Free Software licenses, therefore, must permit this sort of -altruistic sharing of software among friends. - -The commercial environment must also have the benefits of this freedom. -Commercial sharing typically takes the form of selling copies of Free -Software. Free Software can be sold at any price to anyone. Those who -redistribute Free Software commercially have the freedom to selectively -distribute (you can pick your customers) and to set prices at any level -the redistributor sees fit. - -It is true that many people get copies of Free Software very cheaply (and -sometimes without charge). The competitive free market of Free Software -tends to keep prices low and reasonable. However, if someone is willing -to pay a billion dollars for one copy of the GNU Compiler Collection, such -a sale is completely permitted. - -Another common instance of commercial sharing is service-oriented -distribution. For example, a distribution vendor may provide immediate -security and upgrade distribution via a special network service. Such -distribution is completely permitted for Free Software. - -(Section~\ref{Business Models} of this tutorial talks in detail about -various Free Software business models that take advantage of the freedom -to share commercially.) - -\subsection{The Freedom to Share Improvements} - -The freedom to modify and improve is somewhat empty without the freedom to -share those improvements. The Free Software community is built on the -pillar of altruistic sharing of improved Free Software. Inevitably, a -Free Software project sprouts a mailing list where improvements are shared -freely among members of the development community. Such non-commercial -sharing must be permitted for Free Software to thrive. - -Commercial sharing of modified Free Software is equally important. For a -competitive free market for support to exist, all developers --- from -single-person contractors to large software companies --- must have the -freedom to market their services as improvers of Free Software. All forms -of such service marketing must be equally available to all. - -For example, selling support services for Free Software is fully -permitted. Companies and individuals can offer themselves as ``the place -to call'' when software fails or does not function properly. For such a -service to be meaningful, the entity offering that service must have the -right to modify and improve the software for the customer to correct any -problems that are beyond mere user error. - -Entities must also be permitted to make available modified versions of -Free Software. Most Free Software programs have a ``standard version'' -that is made available from the primary developers of the software. -However, all who have the software have the ``freedom to fork'' --- that -is, make available non-trivial modified versions of the software on a -permanent or semi-permanent basis. Such freedom is central to vibrant -developer and user interaction. - -Companies and individuals have the right to make true value-added versions -of Free Software. They may use freedom to share improvements to -distribute distinct versions of Free Software with different functionality -and features. Furthermore, this freedom can be exercised to serve a -disenfranchised subset of the user community. If the developers of the -standard version refuse to serve the needs of some of the software's -users, other entities have the right to create long- or short-lived fork -that serves that sub-community. - -\section{How Does Software Become Free?} - -The last section set forth the freedoms and rights are respected by Free -Software. It presupposed, however, that such software exists. This -section discusses how Free Software comes into existence. But first, it -addresses how software can be non-free in the first place. - -Software can be made proprietary only because it is governed by copyright -law\footnote{This statement is a bit of an oversimplification. Patents - and trade secrets can cover software and make it effectively non-free, - one can contract away their rights and freedoms regarding software, or - source code can be practically obscured in binary-only distribution - without reliance on any legal system. However, the primary control - mechanism for software is copyright.}. Copyright law, with respect to -software, governs copying, modifying, and redistributing that -software\footnote{Copyright law in general also governs ``public - performance'' of copyrighted works. There is no generally agreed - definition for public performance of software and version 2 of the GPL - does not govern public performance.}. By law, the copyright holder (aka -the author) of the work controls how others may copy, modify and/or -distribute the work. For proprietary software, these controls are used to -prohibit these activities. In addition, proprietary software distributors -further impede modification in a practical sense by distributing only -binary code and keeping the source code of the software secret. - -Copyright law is a construction. In the USA, the Constitution permits, -but does not require, the creation of copyright law as federal -legislation. Software, since it is an idea fixed in a tangible medium, is -thus covered by the statues, and is copyrighted by default. - -However, this legal construction is not necessarily natural. Software, in -its natural state without copyright, is Free Software. In an imaginary -world, which has no copyright, the rules would be different. In this -world, when you received a copy of a program's source code, there would be -no default legal system to restrict you from sharing it with others, -making modifications, or redistributing those modified -versions\footnote{There could still exist legal systems, like our modern - patent system, which could restrict the software in other ways.}. - -Software in the real world is copyrighted by default, and that default -legal system does exist. However, it is possible to move software out of -the domain of the copyright system. A copyright holder is always -permitted to \defn{disclaim} their copyright. If copyright is disclaimed, -the software is not governed by copyright law. Software not governed by -copyright is in the ``public domain''. - -\subsection{Public Domain Software} - -An author can create public domain software by disclaiming all copyright -interest on the work. In the USA and other countries that have signed the -Berne convention on copyright, software is copyrighted automatically by -the author when she ``fixes the software into a tangible medium''. In -the software world, this usually means typing the source code of the -software into a file. - -However, an author can disclaim that default control given to her by the -copyright laws. Once this is done, the software is in the public domain ---- it is no longer covered by copyright. Since it is copyright law that -allows for various controls on software (i.e., prohibition of copying, -modification, and redistribution), removing the software from the -copyright system and placing it into the public domain does yield Free -Software. - -Carefully note that software in the public domain is \emph{not} licensed -in any way. It is nonsensical to say software is ``licensed for the -public domain'', or any phrase that implies the copyright holder gave -expressed permission to take actions governed by copyright law. - -By contrast, what the copyright holder has done is renounce her copyright -controls on the work. The law gave her controls over the work, and she -has chosen to waive those controls. Software in the public domain is -absent copyright and absent a license. The software freedoms discussed in -Section~\ref{Free Software Definition} are all granted because there is no -legal system in play to take them away. - -\subsection{Why Copyright Free Software?} - -If simply disclaiming copyright on software yields Free Software, then it -stands to reason that putting software into the public domain is the -easiest and most straightforward way to produce Free Software. Indeed, -some major Free Software projects have chosen this method for making their -software Free. However, most of the Free Software in existence \emph{is} -copyrighted. In most cases (particularly in that of FSF and the GNU -Project), this was done due to very careful planning. - -Software released into the public domain does grant freedom to those users -who receive the standard versions on which the original author disclaimed -copyright. However, since the work is not copyrighted, any non-trivial -modification made to the work is fully copyrightable. - -Free Software released into the public domain initially is Free, and -perhaps some who modify the software choose to place their work into the -public domain as well. However, over time, some entities will choose to -proprietarize their modified versions. The public domain body of software -feeds the proprietary software. The public commons disappears, because -fewer and fewer entities have an incentive to contribute back to the -commons. They know that any of their competitors can proprietarize their -enhancements. Over time, almost no interesting work is left in the public -domain, because nearly all new work is done by proprietarization. - -A legal mechanism is needed to redress this problem. FSF was in fact -originally created primarily as a legal entity to defend software freedom, -and that work of of defending software freedom is a substantial part of -its work today. Specifically because of this ``embrace, proprietarize and -extend'' cycle, FSF made a conscious choice to copyright its Free Software, -and then license it under ``copyleft'' terms, and many, including the -developers of the kernel named Linux, have chosen to follow this paradigm. - -Copyleft is a legal strategy to defend, uphold and propagate software -freedom. The basic technique of copyleft is as follows: copyright the -software, license it under terms that give all the software freedoms, but -use the copyright law controls to ensure that all who receive a copy of -the software have equal rights and freedom. In essence, copyleft grants -freedom, but forbids others to forbid that freedom from anyone else along -the distribution and modification chains. - -Copyleft is a general concept. Much like ideas for what a computer might -do must be \emph{implemented} by a program that actually does the job, so -too must copyleft be implemented in some concrete legal structure. -``Share and share alike'' is a phrase that is often enough to explain the -concept behind copyleft, but to actually make it work in the real world, a -true implementation in legal text must exist. The GPL is the primary -implementation of copyleft in copyright licensing language. - -\section{An Ecosystem of Equality} - -The GPL uses copyright law to defend freedom and equally ensure users' -rights. This ultimately creates an ecosystem of equality for both -business and non-commercial users. - -\subsection{The Non-Commercial Ecosystem} - -A GPL'd code base becomes a center of a vibrant development and user -community. Traditionally, volunteers, operating non-commercially out of -keen interest or ``scratch an itch'' motivations, produce initial versions -of a GPL'd system. Because of the efficient distribution channels of the -Internet, any useful GPL'd system is adopted quickly by non-commercial -users. - -Fundamentally, the early release and quick distribution of the software -gives birth to a thriving non-commercial community. Users and developers -begin sharing bug reports and bug fixes across a shared intellectual -commons. Users can trust the developers, because they know that if the -developers fail to address their needs or abandon the project, the GPL -ensures that someone else has the right to pick up development. -Developers know that the users cannot redistribute their software without -passing along the rights granted by GPL, so they are assured that every -one of their users is treated equally. - -Because of the symmetry and fairness inherent in GPL'd distribution, -nearly every GPL'd package in existence has a vibrant non-commercial user -and developer base. - -\subsection{The Commercial Ecosystem} - -By the same token, nearly all established GPL'd software systems have a -vibrant commercial community. Nearly every GPL'd system that has gained -wide adoption from non-commercial users and developers eventually begins -to fuel a commercial system around that software. - -For example, consider the Samba file server system that allows Unix-like -systems (including GNU/Linux) to serve files to Microsoft Windows systems. -Two graduate students originally developed Samba in their spare time and -it was deployed non-commercially in academic environments. However, very -soon for-profit companies discovered that the software could work for them -as well, and their system administrators began to use it in place of -Microsoft Windows NT file-servers. This served to lower the cost of -running such servers by orders of magnitude. There was suddenly room in -Windows file-server budgets to hire contractors to improve Samba. Some of -the first people hired to do such work were those same two graduate -students who originally developed the software. - -The non-commercial users, however, were not concerned when these two -fellows began collecting paychecks off of their GPL'd work. They knew -that because of the nature of the GPL that improvements that were -distributed in the commercial environment could easily be folded back into -the standard version. Companies are not permitted to proprietarize -Samba, so the non-commercial users, and even other commercial users are -safe in the knowledge that the software freedom ensured by GPL will remain -protected. - -Commercial developers also work in concert with non-commercial developers. -Those two now-long-since graduated students continue to contribute to -Samba altruistically, but also get work doing it. Priorities change when a -client is in the mix, but all the code is contributed back to the -standard version. Meanwhile, many other individuals have gotten involved -non-commercially as developers, because they want to ``cut their teeth on -Free Software'' or because the problems interest them. When they get good -at it, perhaps they will move on to another project or perhaps they will -become commercial developers of the software themselves. - -No party is a threat to another in the GPL software scenario because -everyone is on equal ground. The GPL protects rights of the commercial -and non-commercial contributors and users equally. The GPL creates trust, -because it is a level playing field for all. - -\subsection{Law Analogy} - -In his introduction to Stallman's \emph{Free Software, Free Society}, -Lawrence Lessig draws an interesting analogy between the law and Free -Software. He argues that the laws of a Free society must be protected -much like the GPL protects software. So that I might do true justice to -Lessig's argument, I quote it verbatim: - -\begin{quotation} - -A ``free society'' is regulated by law. But there are limits that any free -society places on this regulation through law: No society that kept its -laws secret could ever be called free. No government that hid its -regulations from the regulated could ever stand in our tradition. Law -controls. But it does so justly only when visibly. And law is visible -only when its terms are knowable and controllable by those it regulates, -or by the agents of those it regulates (lawyers, legislatures). - -This condition on law extends beyond the work of a legislature. Think -about the practice of law in American courts. Lawyers are hired by their -clients to advance their clients' interests. Sometimes that interest is -advanced through litigation. In the course of this litigation, lawyers -write briefs. These briefs in turn affect opinions written by judges. -These opinions decide who wins a particular case, or whether a certain law -can stand consistently with a constitution. - -All the material in this process is free in the sense that Stallman means. -Legal briefs are open and free for others to use. The arguments are -transparent (which is different from saying they are good) and the -reasoning can be taken without the permission of the original lawyers. -The opinions they produce can be quoted in later briefs. They can be -copied and integrated into another brief or opinion. The ``source code'' -for American law is by design, and by principle, open and free for anyone -to take. And take lawyers do---for it is a measure of a great brief that -it achieves its creativity through the reuse of what happened before. The -source is free; creativity and an economy is built upon it. - -This economy of free code (and here I mean free legal code) doesn't starve -lawyers. Law firms have enough incentive to produce great briefs even -though the stuff they build can be taken and copied by anyone else. The -lawyer is a craftsman; his or her product is public. Yet the crafting is -not charity. Lawyers get paid; the public doesn't demand such work -without price. Instead this economy flourishes, with later work added to -the earlier. - -We could imagine a legal practice that was different---briefs and -arguments that were kept secret; rulings that announced a result but not -the reasoning. Laws that were kept by the police but published to no one -else. Regulation that operated without explaining its rule. - -We could imagine this society, but we could not imagine calling it -``free.'' Whether or not the incentives in such a society would be better -or more efficiently allocated, such a society could not be known as free. -The ideals of freedom, of life within a free society, demand more than -efficient application. Instead, openness and transparency are the -constraints within which a legal system gets built, not options to be -added if convenient to the leaders. Life governed by software code should -be no less. - -Code writing is not litigation. It is better, richer, more -productive. But the law is an obvious instance of how creativity and -incentives do not depend upon perfect control over the products created. -Like jazz, or novels, or architecture, the law gets built upon the work -that went before. This adding and changing is what creativity always is. -And a free society is one that assures that its most important resources -remain free in just this sense.\footnote{This quotation is Copyright - \copyright{} 2002, Lawrence Lessig. It is licensed under the terms of - \href{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/}{the ``Attribution - License'', version 1.0} or any later version as published by Creative - Commons.} -\end{quotation} - -In essence, lawyers are paid to service the shared commons of legal -infrastructure. Few citizens defend themselves in court or write their -own briefs (even though they are legally permitted to do so) because -everyone would prefer to have an expert do that job. - -The Free Software economy is a market that is ripe for experts. It -functions similarly to other well established professional fields like the -law. The GPL, in turn, serves as the legal scaffolding that permits the -creation of this vibrant commercial and non-commercial Free Software -economy. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Running Software And Verbatim Copying} -\label{run-and-verbatim} - - -This chapter begins the deep discussion of the details of the terms of -GPL\@. In this chapter, we consider the first two sections: GPL \S\S -0--2. These are the straightforward sections of the GPL that define the -simplest rights that the user receives. - -\section{GPL \S 0: Freedom to Run} -\label{GPLs0} - -\S 0, the opening section of GPL, sets forth that the work is governed by -copyright law. It specifically points out that it is the ``copyright -holder'' who decides if a work is licensed under its terms, and explains -how the copyright holder might indicate this fact. - -A bit more subtly, \S 0 makes an inference that copyright law is the only -system under which it is governed. Specifically, it states: -\begin{quote} -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. -\end{quote} -In essence, the license governs \emph{only} those activities and all other -activities are unrestricted, provided that no other agreements trump GPL -(which they cannot; see Sections~\ref{GPLs6} and~\ref{GPLs7}). This is -very important, because the Free Software community heavily supports -users' rights to ``fair use'' and ``unregulated use'' of copyrighted -material. GPL asserts through this clause that it supports users' rights -to fair and unregulated uses. - -Fair use of copyrighted material is an established legal doctrine that -permits certain activities. Discussion of the various types of fair use -activity are beyond the scope of this tutorial. However, one important -example of fair use is the right to quote a very few lines (less than -seven or so), and reuse them as you with without licensing restrictions. - -Fair use is a doctrine established by the courts or by statute. By -contrast, unregulated uses are those that are not covered by the statue -nor determined by a court to be covered, but are common and enjoyed by -many users. An example of unregulated use is reading a printout of the -program's source code like an instruction book for the purpose of learning -how to be a better programmer. - -\medskip - -Thus, the GPL protects users fair and unregulated use rights precisely by -not attempting to cover them. Furthermore, the GPL ensures the freedom -to run specifically by stating the following: -\begin{quote} -The act of running the Program is not restricted -\end{quote} -Thus, users are explicitly given the freedom to run by \S 0. - -\medskip - -The bulk of \S 0 not yet discussed gives definitions for other terms used -throughout. The only one worth discussing in detail is ``work based on -the Program''. The reason this definition is particularly interesting is -not for the definition itself, which is rather straightforward, but the -because it clears up a common misconception about the GPL\@. - -The GPL is often mistakenly criticized because it fails to give a -definition of ``derivative work''. In fact, it would be incorrect and -problematic if the GPL attempted to define this. A copyright license, in -fact, has no control over what may or may not be a derivative work. This -matter is left up to copyright law, not the licenses that utilize it. - -It is certainly true that copyright law as a whole does not propose clear -and straightforward guidelines for what is and is not a derivative -software work under copyright law. However, no copyright license --- not -even the GNU GPL --- can be blamed for this. Legislators and court -opinions must give us guidance to decide the border cases. - -\section{GPL \S 1: Verbatim Copying} -\label{GPLs1} - -GPL \S 1 covers the matter of redistributing the source code of a program -exactly as it was received. This section is quite straightforward. -However, there are a few details worth noting here. - -The phrase ``in any medium'' is important. This, for example, gives the -freedom to publish a book that is the printed copy of the program's source -code. It also allows for changes in the medium of distribution. Some -vendors may ship Free Software on a CD, but others may place it right on -the hard drive of a pre-installed computer. Any such redistribution media -is allowed. - -Preservation of copyright notice and license notifications are mentioned -specifically in \S 1. These are in some ways the most important part of -the redistribution, which is why they are mentioned by name. The GPL -always strives to make it abundantly clear to anyone who receives the -software what its license is. The goal is to make sure users know their -rights and freedoms under GPL and to leave no reason that someone would be -surprised that the software she got was licensed under GPL\@. Thus -throughout the GPL, there are specific reference to the importance of -notifying others down the distribution chain that they have rights under -GPL. - -Also mentioned by name is the warranty disclaimer. Most people today do -not believe that software comes with any warranty. Notwithstanding the -proposed state-level UCITA bills (which have never obtained widespread -adoption), there are little or no implied warranties with software. -However, just to be on the safe side, GPL clearly disclaims them, and the -GPL requires redistributors to keep the disclaimer very visible. (See -Sections~\ref{GPLs11} and~\ref{GPLs12} of this tutorial for more on GPL's -warranty disclaimers.) - -Note finally that \S 1 begins to set forth the important defense of -commercial freedom. \S 1 clearly states that in the case of verbatim -copies, one may make money. Redistributors are fully permitted to charge -for the redistribution of copies of Free Software. In addition, they may -provide the warranty protection that the GPL disclaims as an additional -service for a fee. (See Section~\ref{Business Models} for more discussion -on making a profit from Free Software redistribution.) - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\chapter{Derivative Works: Statute and Case Law} - -We digress for this chapter from our discussion of GPL's exact text to -consider the matter of derivative works --- a concept that we must -understand fully before considering \SS 2--3 of GPL\@. GPL, and Free -Software licensing in general, relies critically on the concept of -``derivative work'' since software that is ``independent,'' (i.e., not -``derivative'') of free software need not abide by the terms of the -applicable Free Software license. As much is required by \S 106 of the -Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. \S 106 (2002), and admitted by Free Software -licenses, such as the GPL, which (as we have seen) states in \S 0 that ``a -'work based on the Program' means either the Program or any derivative -work under copyright law.'' It is being a derivative work of Free Software -that triggers the necessity to comply with the terms of the Free Software -license under which the original work is distributed. Therefore, one is -left to ask, just what is a ``derivative work?'' The answer to that -question differs depending on which court is being asked. - -The analysis in this chapter sets forth the differing definitions of -derivative work by Circuit. The broadest and most established definition -of derivative work for software is the abstraction, filtration, and -comparison test (``the AFC test'') as created and developed by the Second -Circuit. Some Circuits, including the Ninth Circuit and the First Circuit, -have either adopted narrower versions of the AFC test or have expressly -rejected the AFC test in favor of a narrower standard. Further, several -other Circuits have yet to adopt any definition of derivative work for -software. - -As an introductory matter, it is important to note that literal copying of -a significant portion of source code is not always sufficient to establish -that a second work is a derivative work of an original -program. Conversely, a second work can be a derivative work of an original -program even though absolutely no copying of the literal source code of -the original program has been made. This is the case because copyright -protection does not always extend to all portions of a program’s code, -while, at the same time, it can extend beyond the literal code of a -program to its non-literal aspects, such as its architecture, structure, -sequence, organization, operational modules, and computer-user interface. - -\section{The Copyright Act} - -The copyright act is of little, if any, help in determining the definition -of a derivative work of software. However, the applicable provisions do -provide some, albeit quite cursory, guidance. Section 101 of the Copyright -Act sets forth the following definitions: - -\begin{quotation} -A ``computer program'' is a set of statements or instructions to be used -directly or indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain -result. - -A ``derivative work'' is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, -such as a translation, musical arrangement, dramatization, -fictionalization, motion picture version, sound recording, art -reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work -may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial -revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a -whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a ``derivative work''. -\end{quotation} - -These are the only provisions in the Copyright Act relevant to the -determination of what constitutes a derivative work of a computer -program. Another provision of the Copyright Act that is also relevant to -the definition of derivative work is \S 102(b), which reads as follows: - -\begin{quotation} -In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship -extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, -concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is -described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work. -\end{quotation} - -Therefore, before a court can ask whether one program is a derivative work -of another program, it must be careful not to extend copyright protection -to any ideas, procedures, processes, systems, methods of operation, -concepts, principles, or discoveries contained in the original program. It -is the implementation of this requirement to ``strip out'' unprotectable -elements that serves as the most frequent issue over which courts -disagree. - -\section{Abstraction, Filtration, Comparison Test} - -As mentioned above, the AFC test for determining whether a computer -program is a derivative work of an earlier program was created by the -Second Circuit and has since been adopted in the Fifth, Tenth, and -Eleventh Circuits. Computer Associates Intl., Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 982 -F.2d 693 (2nd Cir. 1992); Engineering Dynamics, Inc. v. Structural -Software, Inc., 26 F.3d 1335 (5th Cir. 1994); Kepner-Tregoe, -Inc. v. Leadership Software, Inc., 12 F.3d 527 (5th Cir. 1994); Gates -Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indust., Ltd., 9 F.3d 823 (10th Cir. 1993); -Mitel, Inc. v. Iqtel, Inc., 124 F.3d 1366 (10th Cir. 1997); 5 Bateman -v. Mnemonics,Inc., 79 F.3d 1532 (11th Cir. 1996); and, Mitek Holdings, -Inc. v. Arce Engineering Co., Inc., 89 F.3d 1548 (11th Cir. 1996). - -Under the AFC test, a court first abstracts from the original program its -constituent structural parts. Then, the court filters from those -structural parts all unprotectable portions, including incorporated ideas, -expression that is necessarily incidental to those ideas, and elements -that are taken from the public domain. Finally, the court compares any and -all remaining kernels of creative expression to the structure of the -second program to determine whether the software programs at issue are -substantially similar so as to warrant a finding that one is the -derivative work of the other. - -Often, the courts that apply the AFC test will perform a quick initial -comparison between the entirety of the two programs at issue in order to -help determine whether one is a derivative work of the other. Such an -holistic comparison, although not a substitute for the full application of -the AFC test, sometimes reveals a pattern of copying that is not otherwise -obvious from the application of the AFC test when, as discussed below, -only certain components of the original program are compared to the second -program. If such a pattern is revealed by the quick initial comparison, -the court is more likely to conclude that the second work is indeed a -derivative of the original. - -\subsection{Abstraction} - -The first step courts perform under the AFC test is separation of the -work’s ideas from its expression. In a process akin to reverse -engineering, the courts dissect the original program to isolate each level -of abstraction contained within it. Courts have stated that the -abstractions step is particularly well suited for computer programs -because it breaks down software in a way that mirrors the way it is -typically created. However, the Courts have also indicated that this step -of the AFC test requires substantial guidance from experts, because it is -extremely fact and situation specific. - -By way of example, one set of abstraction levels is, in descending order -of generality, as follows: the main purpose, system architecture, abstract -data types, algorithms and data structures, source code, and object -code. As this set of abstraction levels shows, during the abstraction step -of the AFC test, the literal elements of the computer program, namely the -source and object code, are defined as particular levels of -abstraction. Further, the source and object code elements of a program are -not the only elements capable of forming the basis for a finding that a -second work is a derivative of the program. In some cases, in order to -avoid a length factual inquiry by the court, the owner of the copyright in -the original work will submit its own list of what it believes to be the -protected elements of the original program. In those situations, the court -will forgo performing its own abstraction, and proceed to second step of -the AFC test. - -\subsection{Filtration} - -The most difficult and controversial part of the AFC test is the second -step, which entails the filtration of protectable expression contained in -the original program from any unprotectable elements nestled therein. In -determining which elements of a program are unprotectable, courts employ a -myriad of rules and procedures to sift from a program all the portions -that are not eligible for copyright protection. - -First, as set forth in \S 102(b) of the Copyright Act, any and all ideas -embodied in program are to be denied copyright protection. However, -implementing this rule is not as easy as it first appears. The courts -readily recognize the intrinsic difficulty in distinguishing between ideas -and expression and that, given the varying nature of computer programs, -doing so will be done on an ad hoc basis. The first step of the AFC test, -the abstraction, exists precisely to assist in this endeavor by helping -the court separate out all the individual elements of the program so that -they can be independently analyzed for their expressive nature. - -A second rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of -the AFC test is the doctrine of merger, which denies copyright protection -to expression necessarily incidental to the idea being expressed. The -reasoning behind this doctrine is that when there is only one way to -express an idea, the idea and the expression merge, meaning that the -expression cannot receive copyright protection due to the bar on copyright -protection extending to ideas. In applying this doctrine, a court will ask -whether the program's use of particular code or structure is necessary for -the efficient implementation of a certain function or process. If so, then -that particular code or structure is not protected by copyright and, as a -result, it is filtered away from the remaining protectable expression. - -A third rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of -the AFC test is the doctrine of scenes a faire, which denies copyright -protection to elements of a computer program that are dictated by external -factors. Such external factors can include: - -\begin{enumerate} - \renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}} - \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textup{(\theenumi)}} - -\item the mechanical -specifications of the computer on which a particular program is intended -to operate; - -\item compatibility requirements of other programs with which a -program is designed to operate in conjunction; - -\item computer manufacturers' -design standards; - -\item demands of the industry being serviced; and - -widely accepted programming practices within the computer industry. - -\end{enumerate} - -Any code or structure of a program that was shaped predominantly in -response to these factors is filtered out and not protected by -copyright. Lastly, elements of a computer program are also to be filtered -out if they were taken from the public domain or fail to have sufficient -originality to merit copyright protection. - -Portions of the source or object code of a computer program are rarely -filtered out as unprotectable elements. However, some distinct parts of -source and object code have been found unprotectable. For example, -constant s, the invariable integers comprising part of formulas used to -perform calculations in a program, are unprotectable. Further, although -common errors found in two programs can provide strong evidence of -copying, they are not afforded any copyright protection over and above the -protection given to the expression containing them. - -\subsection{Comparison} - -The third and final step of the AFC test entails a comparison of the -original program's remaining protectable expression to a second -program. The issue will be whether any of the protected expression is -copied in the second program and, if so, what relative importance the -copied portion has with respect to the original program overall. The -ultimate inquiry is whether there is ``substantial'' similarity between -the protected elements of the original program and the potentially -derivative work. The courts admit that this process is primarily -qualitative rather than quantitative and is performed on a case-by-case -basis. In essence, the comparison is an ad hoc determination of whether -the protectable elements of the original program that are contained in the -second work are significant or important parts of the original program. If -so, then the second work is a derivative work of the first. If, however, -the amount of protectable elements copied in the second work are so small -as to be de minimis, then the second work is not a derivative work of the -original. - -\section{Analytic Dissection Test} - -The Ninth Circuit has adopted the analytic dissection test to determine -whether one program is a derivative work of another. Apple Computer, -Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994). The analytic -dissection test first considers whether there are substantial similarities -in both the ideas and expressions of the two works at issue. Once the -similar features are identified, analytic dissection is used to determine -whether any of those similar features are protected by copyright. This -step is the same as the filtration step in the AFC test. After identifying -the copyrightable similar features of the works, the court then decides -whether those features are entitled to ``broad'' or ``thin'' -protection. ``Thin'' protection is given to non-copyrightable facts or -ideas that are combined in a way that affords copyright protection only -from their alignment and presentation, while ``broad'' protection is given -to copyrightable expression itself. Depending on the degree of protection -afforded, the court then sets the appropriate standard for a subjective -comparison of the works to determine whether, as a whole, they are -sufficiently similar to support a finding that one is a derivative work of -the other. ``Thin'' protection requires the second work be virtually -identical in order to be held a derivative work of an original, while -``broad'' protection requires only a ``substantial similarity.'' - -\section{No Protection for ``Methods of Operation''} - -The First Circuit expressly rejected the AFC test and, instead, takes a -much narrower view of the meaning of derivative work for software. The -First Circuit holds that ``method of operation,'' as used in \S 102(b) of -the Copyright Act, refers to the means by which users operate -computers. Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland Int’l., Inc., 49 F.3d 807 -(1st Cir. 1995). More specifically, the court held that a menu command -hierarchy for a computer program was uncopyrightable because it did not -merely explain and present the program’s functional capabilities to the -user, but also served as a method by which the program was operated and -controlled. As a result, under the First Circuit’s test, literal copying -of a menu command hierarchy, or any other ``method of operation,'' can not -form the basis for a determination that one work is a derivative of -another. It is also reasonable to expect that the First Circuit will read -the unprotectable elements set forth in \S 102(b) broadly, and, as such, -promulgate a definition of derivative work that is much narrower than that -which exists under the AFC test. - -\section{No Test Yet Adopted} - -Several circuits, including most notably the Fourth and Seventh, have yet -to declare their definition of derivative work and whether or not the AFC, -Analytic Dissection, or some other test best fits their interpretation of -copyright law. Therefore, uncertainty exists with respect to determining -the extent to which a software program is a derivative work of another in -those circuits. However, one may presume that they would give deference to -the AFC test since it is by far the majority rule amongst those circuits -that have a standard for defining a software derivative work. - -\section{Cases Applying Software Derivative Work Analysis} - -In the preeminent case regarding the definition of a derivative work for -software, Computer Associates v. Altai, the plaintiff alleged that the its -program, Adapter, which was used to handle the differences in operating -system calls and services, was infringed by the defendant's competitive -program, Oscar. About 30 percent of Oscar was literally the same code as -that in Adapter. After the suit began, the defendant rewrote those -portions of Oscar that contained Adapter code in order to produce a new -version of Oscar that was functionally competitive with Adapter, without -have any literal copies of its code. Feeling slighted still, the -plaintiff alleged that even the second version of Oscar, despite having no -literally copied code, also infringed its copyrights. In addressing that -question, the Second Circuit promulgated the AFC test. - -In abstracting the various levels of the program, the court noted a -similarity between the two programs' parameter lists and macros. However, -following the filtration step of the AFC test, only a handful of the lists -and macros were protectable under copyright law because they were either -in the public domain or required by functional demands on the -program. With respect to the handful of parameter lists and macros that -did qualify for copyright protection, after performing the comparison step -of the AFC test, it was reasonable for the district court to conclude that -they did not warrant a finding of infringement given their relative minor -contribution to the program as a whole. Likewise, the similarity between -the organizational charts of the two programs was not substantial enough -to support a finding of infringement because they were too simple and -obvious to contain any original expression. - -Perhaps not surprisingly, there have been few cases involving a highly -detailed software derivative work analysis. Most often, cases involve -clearer basis for decision, including frequent bad faith on the part of -the defendant or over aggressiveness on the part of the plaintiff. -However, no cases involving free software licensing have ever gone to -court. As free software becomes an ever increasingly important part of -the economy, it remains to be seen whether or not battle lines will be -drawn over whether particular programs infringe the rights of free -software developers or whether the entire community, including industry, -adopts norms avoiding such risk. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\chapter{Modified Source and Binary Distribution} -\label{source-and-binary} - -In this chapter, we discuss the two core sections that define the rights -and obligations for those who modify, improve, and/or redistribute GPL'd -software. These sections, \SS 2--3, define the central core rights and -requirements of GPL\@. - -\section{GPL \S 2: Share and Share Alike} - -For many, this is where the ``magic'' happens that defends software -freedom along the distribution chain. \S 2 is the only place in the GPL -that governs the modification controls of copyright law. If someone -modifies a GPL'd program, she is bound in the making those changes by \S -2. The goal here is to ensure that the body of GPL'd software, as it -continues and develops, remains Free as in freedom. - -To achieve that goal, \S 2 first sets forth that the rights of -redistribution of modified versions are the same as those for verbatim -copying, as presented in \S 1. Therefore, the details of charging, -keeping copyright notices intact, and other \S 1 provisions are in tact -here as well. However, there are three additional requirements. - -The first (\S 2(a)) requires that modified files carry ``prominent -notices'' explaining what changes were made and the date of such changes. -The goal here is not to put forward some specific way of marking changes, -or controlling the process of how changes get made. Primarily, \S 2(a) -seeks to ensure that those receiving modified versions know what path it -took to them. For some users, it is important to know that they are using -the standard version of program, because while there are many advantages -to using a fork, there are a few disadvantages. Users should be informed -about the historical context of the software version they use, so that -they can make proper support choices. Finally, \S 2(a) serves an academic -purpose --- ensuring that future developers can use a diachronic approach -to understand the software. - -\medskip - -The second requirement (\S 2(b)) contains the four short lines that embody -the legal details of ``share and share alike''. These 46 words are -considered by some to be the most worthy of careful scrutiny. It is worth -the effort to carefully understand what each clause is saying, because \S -2(b) can be a source of great confusion when not properly understood. - -In considering \S 2(b), first note the qualifier: it only applies to -derivative works that ``you distribute or publish''. Despite years of -education efforts by FSF on this matter, many still believe that modifiers -of GPL'd software are required by the license to publish or otherwise -share their changes. On the contrary, \S 2(b) {\bf does not apply if} the -changes are never distributed. Indeed, the freedom to make private, -personal, unshared changes to software for personal use only should be -protected and defended\footnote{FSF does maintain that there is an {\bf - ethical} obligation to redistribute changes that are generally useful, - and often encourages companies and individuals to do so. However, there - is a clear distinction between what one {\bf ought} to do and what one - {\bf must} do.}. - -Next, we again encounter the same matter that appears in \S 0, in the -following text: -\begin{quote} -... that in whole or part contains or is derived from the Program or any - part thereof, -\end{quote} -Again, the GPL relies here on what the copyright law says is a derivative -work. If, under copyright law, the modified version ``contains or is -derived from'' the GPL'd software, then the requirements of \S 2(b) -apply. The GPL invokes its control as a copyright license over the -modification of the work in combination with its control over distribution -of the work. - -The final clause of \S 2(b) describes what the licensee must do if she is -distributing or publishing a work that is deemed a derivative work under -copyright law --- namely, the following: -\begin{quote} -[The work must] be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties -under the terms of this License. -\end{quote} -That is probably the most tightly-packed phrase in all of the GPL\@. -Consider each subpart carefully. - -The work ``as a whole'' is what is to be licensed. This is an important -point that \S 2 spends an entire paragraph explaining; thus this phrase is -worthy of a lengthy discussion here. As a programmer modifies a software -program, she generates new copyrighted material --- fixing expressions of -ideas into the tangible medium of electronic file storage. That -programmer is indeed the copyright holder of those new changes. However, -those changes are part and parcel to the original worked distributed to -the programmer under GPL\@. Thus, the license of the original work -affects the license of the new whole derivative work. - -% {\cal I} -\newcommand{\gplusi}{$\mathcal{G\!\!+\!\!I}$} -\newcommand{\worki}{$\mathcal{I}$} -\newcommand{\workg}{$\mathcal{G}$} - -\label{separate-and-independent} - -It is certainly possible to take an existing independent work (called -\worki{}) and combine it with a GPL'd program (called \workg{}). The -license of \worki{}, when it is distributed as a separate and independent -work, remains the prerogative of the copyright holder of \worki{}. -However, when \worki{} is combined with \workg{}, it produces a new work -that is the combination of the two (called \gplusi{}). The copyright of -this derivative work, \gplusi{}, is jointly held by the original copyright -holder of each of the two works. - -In this case, \S 2 lays out the terms by which \gplusi{} may be -distributed and copied. By default, under copyright law, the copyright -holder of \worki{} would not have been permitted to distribute \gplusi{}; -copyright law forbids it without the expressed permission of the copyright -holder of \workg{}. (Imagine, for a moment, if \workg{} were a Microsoft -product --- would they give you permission to create and distribute -\gplusi{} without paying them a hefty sum?) The license of \workg{}, the -GPL, sets forth ahead of time options for the copyright holder of \worki{} -who may want to create and distribute \gplusi{}. This pre-granted -permission to create and distribute derivative works, provided the terms -of GPL are upheld, goes far above and beyond the permissions that one -would get with a typical work not covered by a copyleft license. Thus, to -say that this restriction is any way unreasonable is simply ludicrous. - -\medskip - -The next phrase of note in \S 2(b) is ``licensed ... at no charge''. This -is a source of great confusion to many. Not a month goes by that FSF does -not receive an email that claims to point out ``a contradiction in GPL'' -because \S 2 says that redistributors cannot charge for modified versions -of GPL'd software, but \S 1 says that they can. The ``at no charge'' -means not that redistributors cannot charge for performing the acts -governed by copyright law\footnote{Recall that you could by default charge - for any acts not governed by copyright law, because the license controls - are confined by copyright.}, but rather that they cannot charge a fee -for the \emph{license itself}. In other words, redistributors of -(modified and unmodified) GPL'd works may charge any amount they choose -for performing the modifications on contract or the act of transferring -the copy to the customer, but they may not charge a separate licensing fee -for the software. - -\S 2(b) further states that the software must ``be licensed ... to all -third parties''. This too has led to some confusions, and feeds the -misconception mentioned earlier --- that all modified versions must made -available to the public at large. However, the text here does not say -that. Instead, it says that the licensing under terms of the GPL must -extend to anyone who might, through the distribution chain, receive a copy -of the software. Distribution to all third parties is not mandated here, -but \S 2(b) does require redistributors to license the derivative works in -a way that is extends to all third parties who may ultimately receive a -copy of the software. - -In summary, \S 2(b) says what terms under which the third parties must -receive this no-charge license. Namely, they receive it ``under the terms -of this License'', the GPL. When an entity \emph{chooses} to redistribute -a derivative work of GPL'd software, the license of that whole derivative -work must be GPL and only GPL\@. In this manner, \S 2(b) dovetails nicely -with \S 6 (as discussed in Section~\ref{GPLs6} of this tutorial). - -\medskip - -The final paragraph of \S 2 is worth special mention. It is possible and -quite common to aggregate various software programs together on one -distribution medium. Computer manufacturers do this when they ship a -pre-installed hard drive, and GNU/Linux distribution vendors do this to -give a one-stop CD or URL for a complete operating system with necessary -applications. The GPL very clearly permits such ``mere aggregation'' with -programs under any license. Despite what you hear from its critics, the -GPL is nothing like a virus, not only because the GPL is good for you and -a virus is bad for you, but also because simple contact with a GPL'd -code-base does not impact the license of other programs. Actual effort -must be expended by a programmer to cause a work to fall under the terms -of the GPL. Redistributors are always welcome to simply ship GPL'd -software alongside proprietary software or other unrelated Free Software, -as long as the terms of GPL are adhered to for those packages that are -truly GPL'd. - -\section{GPL \S 3: Producing Binaries} -\label{GPL-Section-3} -% FIXME: need name of a novelist who writes very obscurely and obliquely. - -Software is a strange beast when compared to other copyrightable works. -It is currently impossible to make a film or a book that can be truly -obscured. Ultimately, the full text of a novel, even one written by -William Faulkner, must presented to the reader as words in some -human-readable language so that they can enjoy the work. A film, even one -directed by David Lynch, must be perceptible by human eyes and ears to -have any value. - -Software is not so. While the source code, the human-readable -representation of software is of keen interest to programmers, users and -programmers alike cannot make the proper use of software in that -human-readable form. Binary code --- the ones and zeros that the computer -can understand --- must be predicable and attainable for the software to -be fully useful. Without the binaries, be they in object or executable -form, the software serves only the didactic purposes of computer science. - -Under copyright law, binary representations of the software are simply -derivative works of the source code. Applying a systematic process (i.e., -``compilation'') to a work of source code yields binary code. The binary -code is now a new work of expression fixed in the tangible medium of -electronic file storage. - -Therefore, for GPL'd software to be useful, the GPL, since it governs the -rules for creation of derivative works, must grant permission for the -generation of binaries. Furthermore, notwithstanding the relative -popularity of source-based GNU/Linux distributions like Gentoo, users find -it extremely convenient to receive distribution of binary software. Such -distribution is the redistribution of derivative works of the software's -source code. \S 3 addresses the matter of creation and distribution of -binary versions. - -Under \S 3, binary versions may be created and distributed under the terms -of \S\S 1--2, so all the material previously discussed applies here. -However, \S 3 must go a bit further. Access to the software's source code -is an incontestable prerequisite for the exercise of the fundamental -freedoms to modify and improve the software. Making even the most trivial -changes to a software program at the binary level is effectively -impossible. \S 3 must ensure that the binaries are never distributed -without the source code, so that these freedoms are ensured to be passed -along the distribution chain. - -\S 3 permits distribution of binaries, and then offers three options for -distribution of source code along with binaries. The most common and the -least complicated is the option given under \S 3(a). - -\S 3(a) offers the option to directly accompany the source code alongside -the distribution of the binaries. This is by far the most convenient -option for most distributors, because it means that the source-code -provision obligations are fully completed at the time of binary -distribution (more on that later). - -Under \S 3(a), the source code provided must be the ``corresponding source -code''. Here ``corresponding'' primarily means that the source code -provided must be that code used to produce the binaries being distributed. -That source code must also be ``complete''. A later paragraph of \S 3 -explains in detail what is meant by ``complete''. In essence, it is all -the material that a programmer of average skill would need to actually use -the source code to produce the binaries she has received. Complete source -is required so that, if the licensee chooses, she should be able to -exercise her freedoms to modify and redistribute changes. Without the -complete source, it would not be possible to make changes that were -actually directly derived from the version received. - -Furthermore, \S 3 is defending against a tactic that has in fact been seen -in FSF's GPL enforcement. Under GPL, if you pay a high price for a copy -of GPL'd binaries (which comes with corresponding source, of course), you -have the freedom to redistribute that work at any fee you choose, or not -at all. Sometimes, companies attempt a GPL-violating cozenage whereby -they produce very specialized binaries (perhaps for an obscure -architecture), and then giving source code that does correspond, but not -giving the ``incantations'' and build plans they used to make that source -compile into the specialized binaries. Therefore, \S 3 that the source -code include ``meta-material'' like scripts, interface definitions, and -other material that is used to ``control compilation and installation'' of -the binaries. In this manner, those further down the distribution chain -are assured that they have the unabated freedom to build their own -derivative works from the sources provided. - -FSF (as authors of GPL) realizes that software distribution comes in many -forms. Embedded manufacturers, for example, have the freedom to put -GPL'd software into their PDAs with very tight memory and space -constraints. In such cases, putting the source right alongside the -binaries on the machine itself might not be an option. While it is -recommended that this be the default way that people comply with GPL, the -GPL does provide options when such distribution is infeasible. - -\S 3, therefore, allows source code to be provided on any physical -``medium customarily used for software interchange''. By design, this -phrase covers a broad spectrum. At best, FSF can viably release a new GPL -every ten years or so. Thus, phrases like this must be adaptive to -changes in the technology. When GPL version 2 was first published in June -1991, distribution on magnetic tape was still common, and CD was -relatively new. Today, CD is the default, and for larger systems DVD-R is -gaining adoption. This language must adapt with changing technology. - -Meanwhile, the binding created by the word ``customarily'' is key. Many -incorrectly believe that distributing binary on CD and source on the -Internet is acceptable. In the corporate world, it is indeed customary to -simply download CDs worth of data over a T1 or email large file -attachments. However, even today in the USA, many computer users with -CD-ROM drives are not connected to the Internet, and most people connected -to the Internet are connected via a 56K dial-up connection. Downloading -CDs full of data is not customary for them in the least. In some cities -in Africa, computers are becoming more common, but Internet connectivity -is still available only at a few centralized locations. Thus, the -``customs'' here have must have a worldwide scope in context, and simply -providing source on the Internet --- while it is a kind, friendly and -useful thing to do --- is not usually sufficient. - -Note, however, a major exception to this rule, given by the last paragraph -of \S 3. \emph{If} distribution of the binary files is made only on the -Internet (i.e., ``from a designated place''), \emph{then} simply providing -the source code right alongside the binaries in the same place is -sufficient to comply with \S 3. - -\medskip - -As is shown above, Under \S 3(a), embedded manufacturers can put the -binaries on the device and ship the source code along on a CD\@. However, -sometimes this turns out to be too costly. Including a CD with every -device could prove too costly, and may practically (although not legally) -prohibit using GPL'd software. For this situation and others like it, \S -3(b) is available. - -\S 3(b) allows a distributor of binaries to instead provide a written -offer for source code alongside those binaries. This is useful in two -specific ways. First, it may turn out that most users do not request the -source, and thus the cost of producing the CDs is saved --- a financial -and environmental windfall. In addition, along with a \S 3(b) compliant -offer for source, a binary distributor might choose to \emph{also} give a -URL for source code. Many who would otherwise need a CD with source might -turn out to have those coveted high bandwidth connections, and are able to -download the source instead --- again yielding environmental and financial -windfalls. - -However, note that regardless of how many users prefer to get the source -online, that \S 3(b) does place lasting long-term obligations on the -binary distributor. The binary distributor must be prepared for three -years to honor that offer for source, and ship it out (just as they would -have had to do under \S 3(a)) at a moment's notice when they receive such -a request. There is real organizational cost here: support engineers for -three years must be trained how to route source requests, and source CD -images for every release version for the last three years must be kept on -hand to burn such CDs quickly. The requests might not even come from -actual customers; the offer for source must be valid for ``any third -party''. - -That phrase is another place where some get confused --- thinking again -that full public distribution of source is required. The offer for source -must be valid for ``any third party'' because of the freedoms of -redistribution granted by \S\S 1--2. A company may ship a binary image -and an offer for source to only one customer. However, under GPL, that -customer has the right to redistribute that software to the world if she -likes. When she does, that customer has an obligation to make sure that -those who receive the software from her can exercise their freedoms under -GPL --- including the freedom to modify, rebuild, and redistribute the -source code. - -\S 3(c) is created to save her some trouble, because by itself \S 3(b) -would unfairly favor large companies. compromise. \S 3(b) allows the -separation of the binary software from the key tool that people can use -to exercise their freedom. The GPL permits this separation because it is -good for redistributors, and those users who turn out not to need the -source. However, to ensure equal rights for all software users, anyone -along the distribution chain must have the right to get the source and -exercise those freedoms that require it. - -Meanwhile, \S 3(b)'s compromise primarily benefits companies who -distribute binary software commercially. Without \S 3(c), that benefit -would be at the detriment of the companies' customers; the burden of -source code provision would be unfairly shifted to the companies' -customers. A customer, who had received binaries with a \S 3(b)-compliant -offer, would be required under GPL (sans \S 3(c)) to acquire the source, -merely to give a copy of the software to a friend who needed it. \S 3(c) -reshifts this burden to entity who benefits from \S 3(b). - -\S 3(c) allows those who undertake \emph{non-commercial} distribution to -simply pass along a \S 3(b)-compliant source code offer. The customer who -wished to give a copy to her friend can now do so without provisioning the -source, as long as she gives that offer to her friend. By contrast, if -she wanted to go into business for herself selling CDs of that software, -she would have to acquire the source and either comply via \S 3(a), or -write her own \S 3(b)-compliant source offer. - -This process is precisely the reason why a \S 3(b) source offer must be -valid for all third parties. At the time the offer is made, there is no -way of knowing who might end up non-commercially receiving a copy of the -software. Companies who choose to comply via \S 3(b) must thus be -prepared to honor all incoming source code requests. For this and the -many other additional necessary complications under \S\S 3(b--c), it is -only rarely a better option than complying via \S 3(a). - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{The Implied Patent Grant in GPL} - -We digress again briefly from our section-by-section consideration of GPL -to consider the interaction between the terms of GPL and patent law. The -GPL, despite being silent with respect to patents, actually confers on its -licensees more rights to a licensor's patents than those licenses that -purport to address the issue. This is the case because patent law, under -the doctrine of implied license, gives to each distribute of a patented -article a license from the distributor to practice any patent claims owned -or held by the distributor that cover the distributed article. The -implied license also extends to any patent claims owned or held by the -distributor that cover ``reasonably contemplated uses'' of the patented -article. To quote the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals, the highest court -for patent cases other than the Supreme Court: - -\begin{quotation} -Generally, when a seller sells a product without restriction, it in -effect promises the purchaser that in exchange for the price paid, it will -not interfere with the purchaser's full enjoyment of the product -purchased. The buyer has an implied license under any patents of the -seller that dominate the product or any uses of the product to which the -parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put. -\end{quotation} -Hewlett-Packard Co. v. Repeat-O-Type Stencil Mfg. Corp., Inc., 123 F.3d -1445 (Fed. Cir. 1997). - -Of course, free software is licensed, not sold, and there are indeed -restrictions placed on the licensee, but those differences are not likely -to prevent the application of the implied license doctrine to free -software, because software licensed under the GPL grants the licensee the -right to make, use, and sell the software, each of which are exclusive -rights of a patent holder. Therefore, although the GPL does not expressly -grant the licensee the right to do those things under any patents the -licensor may have that cover the software or its reasonably contemplated -uses, by licensing the software under the GPL, the distributor impliedly -licenses those patents to the GPL licensee with respect to the GPL -licensed software. - -An interesting issue regarding this implied patent license of GPL'd -software is what would be considered ``uses of the [software] to which the -parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put.'' A clever -advocate may argue that the implied license granted by GPL is larger in -scope than the express license in other free software licenses with -express patent grants, in that, the patent license clause of many of those -licenses are specifically limited to the patent claims covered by the code -as licensed by the patentee. - -To the contrary, GPL's implied patent license grants the GPL licensee a -patent license to do much more than just that because the GPL licensee, -under the doctrine of implied patent license, is free to practice any -patent claims held by the licensor that cover ``reasonably contemplated -uses'' of the GPL'd code, which may very well include creation and -distribution of derivative works since the GPL's terms, under which the -patented code is distributed, expressly permits such activity. - -Further supporting this result is the Federal Circuit's pronouncement that -the recipient of a patented article has, not only an implied license to -make, use, and sell the article, but also an implied patent license to -repair the article to enable it to function properly. Bottom Line Mgmt., -Inc. v. Pan Man, Inc., 228 F.3d 1352 (Fed. Cir. 2000). Additionally, the -Federal Circuit extended that rule to include any future recipients of the -patented article, not just the direct recipient from the distributor. -This theory comports well with the idea of free software, whereby software -is distributed amongst many entities within the community for the purpose -of constant evolution and improvement. In this way, the law of implied -patent license used by the GPL ensures that the community mutually -benefits from the licensing of patents to any single community member. - -Note that simply because GPL'd software has an implied patent license does -not mean that any patents held by a distributor of GPL'd code become -worthless. To the contrary, the patents are still valid and enforceable -against either: - -\begin{enumerate} - \renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}} - \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textup{(\theenumi)}} - -\item any software other than that licensed under the GPL by the patent - holder, and - -\item any party that does not comply with the GPL -with respect to the licensed software. -\end{enumerate} - -\newcommand{\compB}{$\mathcal{B}$} -\newcommand{\compA}{$\mathcal{A}$} - -For example, if Company \compA{} has a patent on advanced web browsing, but -also licenses a web browsing software program under the GPL, then it -cannot assert the patent against any party that takes a license to its -program under the GPL. However, if a party uses that program without -complying with the GPL, then Company \compA{} can assert, not just copyright -infringement claims against the non-GPL-compliant party, but also -infringement of the patent, because the implied patent license only -extends to use of the software in accordance with the GPL. Further, if -Company \compB{} distributes a competitive advanced web browsing program, -Company \compA{} is free to assert its patent against any user or -distributor of that product. It is irrelevant whether Company \compB's -program is distributed under the GPL, as Company \compB{} can not grant -implied licenses to Company \compA's patent. - -This result also reassures companies that they need not fear loosing their -proprietary value in patents to competitors through the GPL implied patent -license, as only those competitors who adopt and comply with the GPL's -terms can benefit from the implied patent license. To continue the -example above, Company \compB{} does not receive a free ride on Company -\compA's patent, as Company \compB{} has not licensed-in and then -redistributed Company A's advanced web browser under the GPL. If Company -\compB{} does do that, however, Company \compA{} still has not lost -competitive advantage against Company \compB{}, as Company \compB{} must then, -when it re-distributes Company \compA's program, grant an implied license -to any of its patents that cover the program. Further, if Company \compB{} -relicenses an improved version of Company A's program, it must do so under -the GPL, meaning that any patents it holds that cover the improved version -are impliedly licensed to any licensee. As such, the only way Company -\compB{} can benefit from Company \compA's implied patent license, is if it, -itself, distributes Company \compA's software program and grants an -implied patent license to any of its patents that cover that program. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Defending Freedom On Many Fronts} - -Chapters~\ref{run-and-verbatim} and ~\ref{source-and-binary} presented the -core freedom-defending provisions of GPL\@, which are in \S\S 0--3. \S\S -4--7 of the GPL are designed to ensure that \S\S 0--3 are not infringed, -are enforceable, are kept to the confines of copyright law and are not -trumped by other copyright agreements or components of other entirely -separate legal systems. In short, while \S\S 0--3 are the parts of the -license that defend the freedoms of users and programmers, \S\S 4--7 are -the parts of the license that keep the playing field clear so that \S\S -0--3 can do their jobs. - -\section{GPL \S 4: Termination on Violation} -\label{GPLs4} - -\S 4 is GPL's termination clause. Upon first examination, it seems -strange for a license that has the goal of defending users and programmers -freedoms for perpetuity in an irrevocable way would have such a clause. -However, upon further examination, the difference between irrevocability -and this termination clause becomes clear. - -The GPL is irrevocable in the sense that once a copyright holder grants -rights for someone to copy, modify and redistribute the software under -terms of the GPL, they cannot later revoke that grant. Since the GPL has -no provision allowing the copyright holder to take such a prerogative, the -license is granted as long as the copyright remains in effect\footnote{In - the USA, due to unfortunate legislation, the length of copyright is - nearly perpetual, even though the Constitution forbids perpetual - copyright.}. The copyright holder has the right to relicense the same -work under different licenses (see Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} -of this tutorial), or to stop distributing the GPL'd version (assuming \S -3(b) was never used), but the she may not revoke the rights under GPL -already granted. - -In fact, when an entity looses their right to copy, modify and distribute -GPL'd software, it is because of their \emph{own actions}, not that of -the copyright holder. The copyright holder does not decided when \S 4 -termination occurs (if ever), the actions of the licensee does. - -Under copyright law, the GPL has granted various rights and freedoms to -the licensee to perform specific types of copying, modification, and -redistribution. By default, all other types of copying, modification, and -redistribution are prohibited. \S 4 says that if you undertake any of -those other types (e.g., redistributing binary-only in violation of \S 3), -then all rights under the license --- even those otherwise permitted for -those who have not violated --- terminate automatically. - -\S 4 gives GPL teeth. If licensees fail to adhere to the license, then -they are stuck. They must to completely cease and desist from all -copying, modification and distribution of that GPL'd software. - -At that point, violating licensees must gain the forgiveness of the -copyright holder to have their rights restored. Alternatively, they could -negotiate another agreement, separate from GPL, with the copyright -holder. Both are common practice. - -At FSF, it is part of the mission to spread software freedom. When FSF -enforces GPL, the goal is to bring the violator back into compliance as -quickly as possible, and redress the damage caused by the violation. -That is FSF's steadfast position in a violation negotiation --- comply -with the license and respect freedom. - -However, other entities who do not share the full ethos of software -freedom as institutionalized by FSF pursue GPL violations differently. -MySQL AB, a company that produces the GPL'd MySQL database, upon -discovering GPL violations typically negotiates a proprietary software -license separately for a fee. While this practice is not one that FSF -would ever consider undertaking or even endorsing, it is a legal way for -copyright holders to proceed. - -\section{GPL \S 5: Acceptance, Copyright Style} -\label{GPLs5} - -\S 5 brings us to perhaps the most fundamental misconception and common -confusion about GPL\@. Because of the prevalence of proprietary software, -most users, programmers, and lawyers alike tend to be more familiar with -EULAs. EULAs are believed by their authors to be contracts, requiring -formal agreement between the licensee and the software distributor to be -valid. This has led to mechanisms like ``shrink-wrap'' and ``click-wrap'' -as mechanisms to perform acceptance ceremonies with EULAs. - -The GPL does not need contract law to ``transfer rights''. No rights are -transfered between parties. By contrast, the GPL is permission slip to -undertake activities that would otherwise been prohibited by copyright law. -As such, it needs no acceptance ceremony; the licensee is not even -required to accept the license. - -However, without the GPL, the activities of copying, modifying and -distributing the software would have otherwise been prohibited. So, the -GPL says that you only accepted the license by undertaking activities that -you would have otherwise been prohibited without your license under GPL\@. -This is a certainly subtle point, and requires a mindset quite different -from the contractual approach taken by EULA authors. - -An interesting side benefit to \S 5 is that the bulk of users of Free -Software are not required to accept the license. Undertaking fair and -unregulated use of the work, for example, does not bind you to the GPL, -since you are not engaging in activity that is otherwise controlled by -copyright law. Only when you engage in those activities that might have an -impact on the freedom of others does license acceptance occur and the -terms begin to bind you to fair and equitable sharing of the software. In -other words, the GPL only kicks in when it needs to for the sake of -freedom. - -\section{GPL \S 6: GPL, My One and Only} -\label{GPLs6} - -A point that was glossed over in Section~\ref{GPLs4}'s discussion of \S 4 -was the irrevocable nature of the GPL\@. The GPL is indeed irrevocable, -and it is made so formally \S 6. - -The first sentence in \S 6 ensures that as software propagates down the -distribution chain, that each licensor can pass along the license to each -new licensee. Under \S 6, the act of distributing automatically grants a -license from the original licensor to the next recipient. This creates a -chain of grants that ensure that everyone in the distribution has rights -under the GPL\@. In a mathematical sense, this bounds the bottom --- -making sure that future licensees get no fewer rights than than the -licensee before. - -The second sentence of \S 6 does the opposite; it bounds from the top. It -prohibits any licensor along the distribution chain from placing -additional restrictions on the user. In other words, no additional -requirements may trump the rights and freedoms given by GPL\@. - -The final sentence of \S 6 makes it abundantly clear that no individual -entity in the distribution chain is responsible for the compliance of any -other. This is particularly important for non-commercial users who have -passed along a source offer under \S 3(c), as they cannot be assured that -the issuer of the offer will honor their \S 3 obligations. - -In short, \S 6 says that your license for the software is your one and -only copyright license allowing you to copy, modify and distribute the -software. - -\section{GPL \S 7: ``Give Software Liberty of Give It Death!''} -\label{GPLs7} - -In essence, \S 7 is a verbosely worded way of saying for non-copyright -systems what \S 6 says for copyright. If there exists any reason that a -distributor knows of that would prohibit later licensees from exercising -their full rights under GPL, then distribution is prohibited. - -Originally, this was designed as the title of this section suggests --- as -a last ditch effort to make sure that freedom was upheld. However, in -modern times, it has come to give much more. Now that the body of GPL'd -software is so large, patent holders who would want to be distributors of -GPL'd software have a tough choice. They must choose between avoiding -distribution of GPL'd software that exercises the teachings of their -patents, or grant a royalty-free, irrevocable, non-exclusive license to -those patents. Many companies, including IBM, the largest patent holder -in the world, have chosen the latter. - -Thus, \S 7 is rarely gives software death by stopping its distribution. -Instead, it is inspiring patent holders to share their patents in the same -freedom-defending way that they share their copyrighted works. - -\section{GPL \S 8: Excluding Unfreedonia} -\label{GPLs8} - -\S 8 is rarely used by copyright holders. Its intention is that, if -particular country, say Unfreedonia, grant particular patents or allow -copyrighted interfaces (no country to our knowledge even permits those -yet), that the GPL'd software can continue in free and unabated -distribution in the countries where such controls do not exist. - -It is a partial ``out'' from \S 7. Without \S 8, if a copyright holder -knew of a patent in a particular country licensed in a GPL-incompatible -way, then she could not distribute under GPL, because the work would -legitimately end up in the hands of citizens of Unfreedonia. - -It is an inevitable but sad reality that some countries are freer than -others. \S 8 exists to permit distribution on those countries that are -free without otherwise negating parts of the license. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Odds, Ends, and Absolutely No Warranty} - -\S 0--7 constitute the freedom-defending terms of the GPL. The balance -of the GPL handles administrivia and issues concerning warranties and -liability. - -\section{GPL \S 9: FSF as stewards of GPL} -\label{GPLs9} - -FSF reserves the exclusive right to publish future versions of the GPL\@; -\S 9 expresses this. While the stewardship of the copyrights on the body -of GPL'd software around the world is shared among thousands of -individuals and organizations, the license itself needs a single steward. -Forking of the code is often regrettable but basically innocuous. Forking -of licensing is disastrous. - -FSF has only released two versions of GPL --- in 1989 and 1991. GPL, -version 3, is under current internal drafting. FSF's plan is to have a -long and engaging comment period. The goal of GPL is defend freedom, and -a gigantic community depends on that freedom now. FSF hopes to take all -stakeholders' opinions under advisement. - -\section{GPL \S 10: Relicensing Permitted} -\label{GPLs10} - -\S 10 reminds the licensee of what is already implied by the nature of -copyright law. Namely, the copyright holder of a particular software -program has the prerogative to grant alternative agreements under separate -copyright licenses. - -\section{GPL \S 11: No Warranty} -\label{GPLs11} - -All warranty disclaimer language tends to be shouted in all capital -letters. Apparently, there was once a case where the disclaimer language -of an agreement was negated because it was not ``conspicuous'' to one of -the parties. Therefore, to make such language ``conspicuous'', people -started placing it in bold or capitalizing the entire text. It now seems -to be voodoo tradition of warranty disclaimer writing. - -Some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions because -its disclaimer of warranties is impermissibly broad. However, \S 11 -contains a jurisdictional savings provision, which states that it is to be -interpreted only as broadly as allowed by applicable law. Such a -provision ensures that both it, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any -jurisdiction, regardless of any particular law regarding the -permissibility of certain warranty disclaimers. - -Finally, one important point to remember when reading \S 11 is that \S 1 -permits the sale of warranty as an additional service, which \S 11 affirms. - -\section{GPL, \S 12: Limitation of Liability} -\label{GPLs12} - -There are many types of warranties, and in some jurisdictions some of them -cannot be disclaimed. Therefore, usually agreements will have both a -warranty disclaimer and a limitation of liability, as we have in \S 12. \S -11 thus gets rid of all implied warranties that can legally be -disavowed. \S 12, in turn, limits the liability of the actor for any -warranties that cannot legally be disclaimed in a particular jurisdiction. - -Again, some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions -because its limitation of liability is impermissibly broad. However, \S -12, just like its sister, \S 11, contains a jurisdictional savings -provision, which states that it is to be interpreted only as broadly as -allowed by applicable law. As stated above, such a provision ensures that -both \S 12, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any jurisdiction, -regardless of any particular law regarding the permissibility of limiting -liability. - -So ends the terms and conditions of the GNU General Public License. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{The Lesser GPL} - -As we have seen in our consideration of the GPL, its text is specifically -designed to cover all possible derivative works under copyright law. Our -goal in designing GPL was to make sure that any derivative work of GPL'd -software was itself released under GPL when distributed. Reaching as far -as copyright law will allow is the most direct way to reach that goal. - -However, while the strategic goal is to bring as much Free Software into -the world as possible, particular tactical situations of software freedom -dictate different means. Extending the copyleft effect as far as -copyright law allows is not always the most prudent course in reaching the -goal. In particular situations, even those of us with the goal of -building a world where all published software is Free Software realize -that full copyleft does not best serve us. The GNU Lesser General Public -License (``GNU LGPL'') was designed as a solution for such situations. - -\section{The First LGPL'd Program} - -The first example that FSF encountered where such altered tactics were -needed was when work began on the GNU C Library. The GNU C Library would -become (and today, now is) a drop-in replacement for existing C Libraries. -On a Unix-like operating system, C is the lingua franca and the C library -is an essential component for all programs. It is extremely difficult to -construct a program that will run with ease on a Unix-like operating -system without making use of services provided by the C Library --- even -if the program is written in a language other than C\@. Effectively, all -user application programs that run on any modern Unix-like system must -make use of the C Library. - -By the time work began on the GNU implementation of the C Library, there -were already many C libraries in existence from a variety of vendors. -Every proprietary Unix vendor had one, and many third parties produced -smaller versions for special purpose use. However, our goal was to create -a C library that would provide equivalent functionality to these other C -libraries on a Free Software operating system (which in fact happens today -on modern GNU/Linux systems, which all use the GNU C Library). - -Unlike existing GNU application software, however, the licensing -implications of releasing the GNU C Library (``glibc'') under GPL were -somewhat different. Applications released under GPL would never -themselves become part of proprietary software. However, if glibc were -released under GPL, it would require that any application distributed for -the GNU/Linux platform be released under GPL\@. - -Since all applications on a Unix-like system depend on the C library, it -means that they must link with that library to function on the system. In -other words, all applications running on a Unix-like system must be -combined with the C library to form a new whole derivative work that is -composed of the original application and the C library. Thus, if glibc -were GPL'd, each and every application distributed for use on GNU/Linux -would also need to be GPL'd, since to even function, such applications -would need to be combined into larger derivative works by linking with -glibc. - -At first glance, such an outcome seems like a windfall for Free Software -advocates, since it stops all proprietary software development on -GNU/Linux systems. However, the outcome is a bit more subtle. In a world -where many C Libraries already exist, many of which could easily be ported -to GNU/Linux, a GPL'd glibc would be unlikely to succeed. Proprietary -vendors would see the excellent opportunity to license their C libraries -to anyone who wished to write proprietary software for GNU/Linux systems. -The de-facto standard for C libraries on GNU/Linux would likely be not -glibc, but the most popular proprietary one. - -Meanwhile, the actual goal of releasing glibc under GPL --- to ensure no -proprietary applications on GNU/Linux --- would be unattainable in this -scenario. Furthermore, users of those proprietary applications would also -be users of a proprietary C library, not the Free glibc. - -The Lesser GPL was initially conceived to handle this scenario. It was -clear that the existence of proprietary applications for GNU/Linux was -inevitable. Since there were so many C libraries already in existence, a -new one under GPL would not stop that tide. However, if the new C library -were released under a license that (a) permitted proprietary applications -to link with it, but (b) made sure that the library itself remained Free, -an ancillary goal could be met. Users of proprietary applications, while -they would not have the freedom to copy, share, modify and redistribute -the application itself, would have the freedom to do so with respect to -the C library. - -There was no way the license of glibc could stop or even slow the creation -of proprietary applications on GNU/Linux. However, loosening the -restrictions on the licensing of glibc ensured that nearly all proprietary -applications at least used a Free C library rather than a proprietary one. -This trade-off is central to the reasoning behind the LGPL\@. - -Of course, many people who use the LGPL today are not thinking in these -terms. In fact, they are often choosing the LGPL because they are looking -for a ``compromise'' between the GPL and the X11-style liberal licensing. -However, understanding FSF's reasoning behind the creation of the LGPL is -helpful when studying the license. - - -\section{What's the Same?} - -Much of the text of the LGPL is identical to the GPL\@. As we begin our -discussion of the LGPL, we will first eliminate the sections that are -identical, or that have the minor modifications of changing the word -``Program'' to ``Library''. - -First, \S 1 of LGPL, the rules for verbatim copying of source, are -equivalent to those in GPL's \S 1. - -Second, \S 8 of LGPL is equivalent \S 4 of GPL\@. In both licenses, this -section handles termination in precisely the same manner. - -\S 9 in LGPL is equivalent to \S 5 in GPL\@. Both sections assert that -the license is a copyright license, and handle the acceptance of those -copyright terms. - -LGPL's \S 10 is equivalent to GPL's \S 6. They both protect the -distribution system of Free Software under these licenses, to ensure that -up, down, and throughout the distribution chain, each recipient of the -software receives identical rights under the license and no other -restrictions are imposed. - -LGPL's \S 11 is GPL's \S 7. As discussed, it is used to ensure that -other claims and legal realities, such as patent licenses and court -judgments, do not trump the rights and permissions granted by these -licenses, and requires that distribution be halted if such a trump is -known to exist. - -LGPL's \S 12 adds the same features as GPL's \S 8. These sections are -used to allow original copyright holders to forbid distribution in -countries with draconian laws that would otherwise contradict these -licenses. - -LGPL's \S 13 sets up FSF as the steward of the LGPL, just as GPL's \S 9 -does so for GPL. Meanwhile, LGPL's \S 14 reminds licensees that copyright -holders can grant exceptions to the terms of LGPL, just as GPL's \S 10 -reminds licensees of the same thing. - -Finally, the assertions of no warranty and limitations of liability are -identical; thus LGPL's \S 15 and \S 16 are the same as GPL's \S 11 and \S -12. - -Thus, as we see, the entire latter half of the license is identical. -The parts which set up the legal boundaries and meta-rules for the license -are the same. It is our intent that the two licenses operate under the -same legal mechanisms and are enforced precisely the same way. - -We strike a difference only in the early portions of the license. -Namely, we go into deeper detail of granting various permissions to -create derivative works, so the redistributors can make some proprietary -derivatives. Since we simply do not allow the license to stretch as far -as copyright law does regarding what derivative works must be relicensed -under the same terms, we must go further to explain which derivative works -we will allow to be proprietary. Thus, we'll see that the front matter -of the LGPL is a bit more wordy and detailed with regards to the -permissions granted to those who modify or redistribute the software. - -\section{Additions to the Preamble} - -Most of LGPL's Preamble is identical, but the last seven paragraphs -introduce the concepts and reasoning behind creation of the license, -presenting a more generalized and briefer version of the story with which -we began our consideration of LGPL\@. - -In short, FSF designed LGPL for those edge cases where the freedom of the -public can better be served by a more lax licensing system. FSF doesn't -encourage use of LGPL automatically for any software that happens to be a -library; rather, FSF suggests that it only be used in specific cases, such -as the following: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item to encourage the widest possible use of a Free Software library, so - it becomes a de-facto standard over similar, although not - interface-identical, proprietary alternatives. - -\item to encourage use of a Free Software library that already has - interface-identical proprietary competitors that are more developed. - -\item to allow a greater number of users to get freedom, by encouraging - proprietary companies to pick a free alternative for its otherwise - proprietary products. - -\end{itemize} - -LGPL's preamble sets forth the limits to which the license seeks to go in -chasing these goals. LGPL is designed to ensure that users who happen to -acquire software linked against such libraries have full freedoms with -respect to that library. They should have the ability to upgrade to newer -or modified free version or to make their own modifications, even if they -cannot modify the primary software program that links to that library. - -Finally, the preamble introduces two terms used throughout the license to -clarify between the different types of derivative works: ``works that uses -the library'' and ``works based on the library''. Unlike GPL, LGPL must -draw some lines regarding derivative works. We do this here in this -license because we specifically seek to liberalize the rights afforded to -those who make derivative works. In GPL, we reach as far as copyright law -allows. In LGPL, we want to draw a line that allows some derivative works -copyright law would otherwise prohibit if the copyright holder exercised -his full permitted controls over the work. - -\section{A Work that Uses the Library} - -In the effort to allow certain proprietary derivative works and prohibit -others, LGPL distinguishes between two classes of derivative works: -``works based on the library'' and ``works that uses the library''. The -distinction is drawn on the bright line of binary (or runtime) derivative -works and source code derivatives. We will first consider the definition -of a ``work that uses the library'', which is set forth in LGPL \S 5. - -We noted in our discussion of GPL \S 3 (discussed in -Section~\ref{GPL-Section-3} of this document) that binary programs when -compiled and linked with GPL'd software are derivative works of that GPL'd -software. This includes both linking that happens at compile-time (when -the binary is created) or at runtime (when the binary -- including library -and main program both -- is loaded into memory by the user). In GPL, -binary derivative works are controlled by the terms of the license (in GPL -\S 3), and distributors of such binary derivatives must release full -corresponding source under terms of GPL\@. - -In the case of LGPL, these are precisely the types of derivative works -we wish to permit. This scenario, defined in LGPL as ``a work that uses -the library'', works as follows: - -\newcommand{\workl}{$\mathcal{L}$} -\newcommand{\lplusi}{$\mathcal{L\!\!+\!\!I}$} - -\begin{itemize} - -\item A new copyright holder creates a separate and independent work, - \worki{}, that makes interface calls (e.g., function calls) to the - LGPL'd work, called \workl{}, whose copyright is held by some other - party. Note that since \worki{} and \workl{} are separate and - independent works, there is no copyright obligation on this new copyright - holder with regard to the licensing of \worki{}, at least with regard to - the source code. - -\item The new copyright holder, for her software to be useful, realizes - that it cannot run without combining \worki{} and \workl{}. - Specifically, when she creates a running binary program, that running - binary must be a derivative work, called \lplusi{}, that the user can - run. - -\item Since \lplusi{} is a derivative work of both \worki{} and \workl{}, - the license of \workl{} (the LGPL) can put restrictions on the license - of \lplusi{}. In fact, this is what LGPL does. - -\end{itemize} - -We will talk about the specific restrictions LGPL places on ``works that -use the library'' in detail in Section~\ref{lgpl-section-6}. For now, -focus on the logic related to how the LGPL places requirements on the -license of \lplusi{}. Note, first of all, the similarity between this -explanation and that in Section~\ref{separate-and-independent}, which -discussed the combination of otherwise separate and independent works with -GPL'd code. Effectively, what LGPL is doing is saying that when a new -work is otherwise separate and independent, but has interface calls out to -an LGPL'd library, then it is considered a ``work that uses the library''. - -In addition, the only reason that LGPL has any control over the licensing -of a ``work that uses the library'' is for the same reason that GPL has -some say over separate and independent works. Namely, such controls exist -because the {\em binary combination\/} (\lplusi{}) that must be created to -make the separate work (\worki{}) at all useful is a derivative work of -the LGPL'd software (\workl{}). - -Thus, a two-question test that will help indicate if a particular work is -a ``work that uses the library'' under LGPL is as follows: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item Is the source code of the new copyrighted work, \worki{}, a - completely independent work that stands by itself, and includes no - source code from \workl{}? - -\item When the source code is compiled, does it create a derivative work - by combining with \workl{}, either by static (compile-time) or dynamic - (runtime) linking, to create a new binary work, \lplusi{}? -\end{enumerate} - -If the answers to both questions are ``yes'', then \worki{} is most likely -a ``work that uses the library''. If the answer to the first question -``yes'', but the answer to the second question is ``no'', then most likely -\worki{} is neither a ``work that uses the library'' nor a ``work based on -the library''. If the answer to the first question is ``no'', but the -answer to the second question is ``yes'', then an investigation into -whether or not \worki{} is in fact a ``work based on the library'' is -warranted. - -\section{A Work Based on the Library} - -In short, a ``work based on the library'' could be defined as any -derivative work of LGPL'd software that cannot otherwise fit the -definition of a ``work that uses the library''. A ``work based on the -library'' extends the full width and depth of copyright derivative works, -in the same sense that GPL does. - -Most typically, one creates a ``work based on the library'' by directly -modifying the source of the library. Such a work could also be created by -tightly integrating new software with the library. The lines are no doubt -fuzzy, just as they are with GPL'd works, since copyright law gives us no -litmus test for derivative works of a software program. - -Thus, the test to use when considering whether something is a ``work -based on the library'' is as follows: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item Is the new work, when in source form, a derivative work under - copyright law of the LGPL'd work? - -\item Is there no way in which the new work fits the definition of a - ``work that uses the library''? -\end{enumerate} - - -If the answer is ``yes'' to both these questions, then you most likely -have a ``work based on the library''. If the answer is ``no'' to the -first but ``yes'' to the second, you are in a gray area between ``work -based on the library'' and a ``work that uses the library''. - -In our years of work with the LGPL, however, we have never seen a work of -software that was not clearly one or the other; the line is quite bright. -At times, though, we have seen cases where it almost appeared as such --- -that a derivative work appeared in some ways to be a work that used the -library and in other ways a work based on the library. We overcame this -problem by dividing the work into smaller subunits. It was soon -discovered that what we actually had were three distinct components -- the -original LGPL'd work, a specific set of works that used that library, and -a specific set of works that were based on the library. Once such -distinctions are established, the licensing for each component can be -considered independently and the LGPL applied to each work as prescribed. - - -\section{Subtleties in Works that Use the Library} - -In our discussion of the definition of ``works that use the library'', we -left out a few more complex details that relate to lower level programming -details. The forth paragraph of LGPL's \S 5 covers these complexities, -and it has been a source of great confusion. Part of the confusion comes -because a deep understanding of how compiler programs work is nearly -mandatory to understand the subtle nature of what \S 5, \P 4 seeks to -cover. It helps some to note that this is a border case that we cover in -the license only so that when such a border case is hit, the implications -of using LGPL continue in the expected way. - -To understand this subtle point, we must recall the way that a compiler -operates. The compiler first generates object code, which are the binary -representations of various programming modules. Each of those modules is -usually not useful by itself; it becomes useful to a user a full program -when those modules are {\em assembled\/} into a full binary executable. - -As we have discussed, the assembly of modules can happen at compile-time -or at runtime. Legally, there is no distinction between the two --- both -create a derivative work by copying and combining portions of one work and -mixing them with another. However, under LGPL, there is a case in the -compilation process where the legal implications are different. -Specifically, while we know that a ``work that uses the library'' is one -whose final binary is a derivative work, but whose source is not, there -are cases where the object code --- that intermediate step between source -and final binary --- is a derivative work created by copying verbatim code -from the LGPL'd software. - -For efficiency, when a compiler turns source code into object code, it -sometimes places literal portions of the copyrighted library code into the -object code for an otherwise separate independent work. In the normal -scenario, the derivative would not be created until final assembly and -linking of the executable occurred. However, when the compiler does this -efficiency optimization, at the intermediate object code step, a -derivative work is created. - -LGPL's \S 5, \P 4 is designed to handle this specific case. The intent of -the license is clearly that simply compiling software to ``make use'' of -the library does not in itself cause the compiled work to be a ``work -based on the library''. However, since the compiler copies verbatim, -copyrighted portions of the library into the object code for the otherwise -separate and independent work, it would actually cause that object file a -``work based on the library''. It is not FSF's intent that a mere -compilation idiosyncrasy would change the requirements on the users of the -LGPL'd software. This paragraph removes that restriction, allowing the -implications of the license to be the same regardless of the specific -mechanisms the compiler uses underneath to create the ``work that uses the -library''. - -As it turns out, we have only once had anyone worry about this specific -idiosyncrasy, because that particular vendor wanted to ship object code -(rather than final binaries) to their customers and were worried about -this edge condition. The intent of clarifying this edge condition is -primarily to quell the worries of software engineers who understand the -level of verbatim code copying that a compiler often does, and to help -them understand that the full implications of LGPL are the same regardless -of the details of the compilation progress. - -\section{LGPL \S 6: Distributing Works that Use the Library} -\label{lgpl-section-6} -Now that we have a established a good working definition of works that -``use'' and works that ``are based on'' the library, we will consider the -rules for distributing these two different works. - -The rules for distributing ``works that use the library'' are covered in -\S 6 of LGPL\@. \S 6 is much like GPL's \S 3, as it requires the release -of source when a binary version of the LGPL'd software is released. Of -course, it only requires that source code for the library itself be made -available. The work that ``uses'' the library need not be provided in -source form. However, there are also conditions in LGPL \S 6 to make sure -that a user who wishes to modify or update the library can do so. - -LGPL \S 6 lists five choices with regard to supplying library source and -granting the freedom to modify that library source to users. We will -first consider the option given by \S 6(b), which describes the most -common way that is currently used for LGPL compliance on a ``work that -uses the library''. - -\S 6(b) allows the distributor of a ``work that uses the library'' to -simply use a dynamically linked, shared library mechanism to link with the -library. This is by far the easiest and most straightforward option for -distribution. In this case, the executable of the work that uses the -library will contain only the ``stub code'' that is put in place by the -shared library mechanism, and at runtime the executable will combine with -the shared version of the library already resident on the user's computer. -If such a mechanism is used, it must allow the user to upgrade and -replace the library with interface-compatible versions and still be able -to use the ``work that use the library''. However, all modern shared -library mechanisms function as such, and thus \S 6(b) is the simplest -option, since it does not even require that the distributor of the ``work -based on the library'' ship copies of the library itself. - -\S 6(a) is the option to use when, for some reason, a shared library -mechanism cannot be used. It requires that the source for the library be -included, in the typical GPL fashion, but it also has a requirement beyond -that. The user must be able to exercise her freedom to modify the library -to its fullest extent, and that means recombining it with the ``work based -on the library''. If the full binary is linked without a shared library -mechanism, the user must have available the object code for the ``worked -based on the library'', so that the user can relink the application and -build a new binary. - -The remaining options in \S 6 are very similar to the other choices -provided by GPL \S 3. There are some additional options, and time does -not permit us in this course to go into those additional options. In -almost all cases of distribution under LGPL, either \S 6(a) or \S 6(b) are -exercised. - -\section{Distribution of Works Based on the Library} - -Essentially, ``works based on the library'' must be distributed under the -same conditions as works under full GPL\@. In fact, we note that LGPL's -\S 2 is nearly identical in its terms and requirements to GPL's \S 2. -There are again subtle differences and additions, which time does not -permit us to cover in this course. - -\section{And the Rest} - -The remaining variations between LGPL and GPL cover the following -conditions: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item allowing a licensing ``upgrade'' from LGPL to GPL\@ (in LGPL \S 3), - -\item binary distribution of the library only, covered in LGPL \S 4, - which is effectively equivalent to LGPL \S 3, and - -\item creating aggregates of libraries that are not derivative works of - each other, and distributing them as a unit (in LGPL \S 7). -\end{itemize} - - -Due to time constraints, we cannot cover these additional terms in detail, -but they are mostly straightforward. The key to understanding LGPL is -understanding the difference between a ``work based on the library'' and a -``work that uses the library''. Once that distinction is clear, the -remainder of LGPL is close enough to GPL that the concepts discussed in -our more extensive GPL unit can be directly applied. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Integrating the GPL into Business Practices} - -Since GPL'd software is now extremely prevalent through the industry, it -is useful to has some basic knowledge about using GPL'd software in -business and how to build business models around GPL'd software. - -\section{Using GPL'd Software In-House} - -A discussed in Sections~\ref{GPLs0} and~\ref{GPLs5} of this tutorial, the -GPL only governs the activities of copying, modifying and distributing the -software are not governed by the license. Thus, in FSF's view, simply -installing the software on a machine and using it is not controlled or -limited in any way by GPL\@. Using Free Software in general requires -substantially fewer agreements and less license compliance activity than -any known proprietary software. - -Even if a company engages heavily in copying the software throughout the -enterprise, such copying is not only permitted by \S\S 1 and 3, but it is -encouraged! If the company simply deploy unmodified (or even modified) -Free Software throughout the organization for its employees to use, the -obligations under the license are very minimal. Using Free Software has a -substantially lower cost of ownership --- both in licensing fees and in -licensing checking and handling -- than the proprietary software -equivalents. - -\section{Business Models} -\label{Business Models} - -Using Free Software in house is certainly helpful, but there is also a -thriving market for Free Software-oriented business models. There is the -traditional model of selling copies of Free Software distributions. Many -companies, including IBM and Red Hat, make substantial revenue from this -model. IBM primarily chooses this model because they have found that for -higher-end hardware, the cost of the profit made from proprietary software -licensing fees is negligible. The real profit is in the hardware, but it is -essential that software be stable, reliable and dependable, and the users -be allowed to have unfettered access to it. Free Software, and GPL'd -software in particular (because IBM can be assured that proprietary -versions of the same software will not exists to compete on their -hardware) is the right choice. - -Red Hat has actually found that a ``convenience fee'' for Free Software, -when set at a reasonable price (around \$60 or so), can produce some -profit. Even though Red Hat's system is fully downloadable on their -website, people still go to local computer stores and buy copies of their -box set, which is simply a printed version of the manual (available under -a free license as well) and the Free Software system it documents. - -\medskip - -However, custom support, service, and software improvement contracts are -the most widely used models for GPL'd software. The GPL is central to -their success, because it ensure that the code base remains common, and -that large and small companies are on equal footing for access to the -technology. Consider, for example, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC). -Cygnus Solutions, a company started in the early 1990s, was able to grow -steadily simply by providing services for GCC --- mostly consisting of -porting GCC to new embedded chipset target platforms. Eventually, Cygnus -was so successful that it was purchased by Red Hat where it remains a -profitable division. - -However, there are very small companies like CodeSourcery, as well as -other medium sized companies like MontaVista and OpenTV that compete in -this space. Because the code-base is protect by GPL, it creates and -demands industry trust. Companies can cooperate on the software and -improve it for everyone. Meanwhile, companies who rely on GCC for their -work are happy to pay for improvements, and for ports to new target -platforms, and nearly all the changes fold back into the standard -versions, and those forks that exist remain freely available. - -\medskip - -\label{Proprietary Relicensing} - -A final common business model that is perhaps the most controversial is -proprietary relicensing of a GPL'd code base. This is only an option for -software in which a particular entity is the sole copyright holder. As -discussed earlier in this tutorial, a copyright holder is permitted under -copyright law to license a software system under her copyright as many -different ways as she likes to as many different parties as she wishes. - -Some companies, such as MySQL AB and TrollTech, use this to their -financial advantage with regard to a GPL'd code base. The standard -version is available from the company under the terms of the GPL\@. -However, parties can purchase separate proprietary software licensing for -a fee. - -This business model is problematic because it means that the GPL'd code -base must be developed in a somewhat monolithic way, because volunteer -Free Software developers may be reluctant to assign their copyrights to -the company because it will not promise to always and forever license the -software as Free Software. Indeed, the company will surely use such code -contributions in proprietary versions licensed for fees. - -\section{Ongoing Compliance} - -GPL compliance is in fact a very simple matter -- much simpler than -typical proprietary software agreements and EULAs. Usually, the most -difficult hurdle is changing from a proprietary software mindset to one -that seeks to foster a community of sharing and mutual support. Certainly -complying with the GPL from a users' perspective gives substantially fewer -headaches than proprietary license compliance. - -For those who go into the business of distributing or distributing -modified versions of GPL'd software, the burden is a bit higher, but not -by much. The glib answer that is that it is always easy to comply with -the GPL by releasing the whole product as Free Software. However, -admittedly to the dismay of FSF, many modern and complex software systems -are built using both proprietary and GPL'd components that are not -legally derivative works of each other. Usually, in product development -with Free Software tools, sometimes it is easier simply to improve -existing GPL'd application than to start from scratch. In exchange for -that benefit, the license requires that the modifier give back to the -commons that made the work easier. It is a reasonable trade-off, and it -is a way to help build a better world while also making a profit. - -Note that FSF does provide services to assist companies who need -assistance in complying with the GPL. You can contact FSF's GPL -Compliance Labs at $<$compliance@fsf.org$>$. - -If you are particularly interested in matters of GPL compliance, we -recommend the second course in this series, {\em GPL Compliance Case - Studies and Legal Ethics in Free Software Licensing\/}, in which we -discuss some real GPL violation cases that FSF has worked to resolve. -Consideration of such cases can help give insight on how to handle GPL -compliance in new situations. - -\appendix - -\chapter{The GNU General Public License} - -\begin{center} -{\parindent 0in - -Version 2, June 1991 - -Copyright \copyright\ 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\bigskip - -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -\bigskip - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. -} -\end{center} - -\begin{center} -{\bf\large Preamble} -\end{center} - - -The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to -share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is -intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to -make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public -License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to -any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free -Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public -License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. - -When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. -Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the -freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service -if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, -that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs; -and that you know you can do these things. - -To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to -deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These -restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you -distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. - -For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or -for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You -must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And -you must show them these terms so they know their rights. - -We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) -offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, -distribute and/or modify the software. - -Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that -everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If -the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its -recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any -problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' -reputations. - -Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. -We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will -individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program -proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must -be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. - -The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and -modification follow. - -\begin{center} -{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and - Modification} -\end{center} - - -\begin{enumerate} - -\addtocounter{enumi}{-1} -\item - -This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice -placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the -terms of this General Public License. The ``Program'', below, refers to -any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either -the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a -work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with -modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, -translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification''.) -Each licensee is addressed as ``you''. - -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of -running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program -is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the -Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). -Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. - -\item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source - code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously - and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice - and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to - this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other - recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. - -You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you -may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. - -\item - -You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion -of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and -distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 -above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that -you changed the files and the date of any change. - -\item - -You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in -whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any -part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third -parties under the terms of this License. - -\item -If the modified program normally reads commands interactively -when run, you must cause it, when started running for such -interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an -announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a -notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide -a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under -these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this -License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but -does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on -the Program is not required to print an announcement.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If -identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, -and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in -themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those -sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you -distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based -on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of -this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the -entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. - -Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest -your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to -exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or -collective works based on the Program. - -In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program -with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of -a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under -the scope of this License. - -\item -You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, -under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of -Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable -source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections -1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three -years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your -cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete -machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be -distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium -customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer -to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is -allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you -received the program in object code or executable form with such -an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for -making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source -code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any -associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to -control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a -special exception, the source code distributed need not include -anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary -form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the -operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component -itself accompanies the executable. - -If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering -access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent -access to copy the source code from the same place counts as -distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not -compelled to copy the source along with the object code. - -\item -You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program -except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt -otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is -void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. -However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under -this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such -parties remain in full compliance. - -\item -You are not required to accept this License, since you have not -signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or -distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are -prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by -modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the -Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and -all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying -the Program or works based on it. - -\item -Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the -Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the -original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to -these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further -restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. -You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to -this License. - -\item -If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent -infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), -conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or -otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not -excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot -distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this -License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you -may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent -license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by -all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then -the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to -refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. - -If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under -any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to -apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other -circumstances. - -It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any -patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any -such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the -integrity of the free software distribution system, which is -implemented by public license practices. Many people have made -generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed -through that system in reliance on consistent application of that -system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing -to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot -impose that choice. - -This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to -be a consequence of the rest of this License. - -\item -If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in -certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the -original copyright holder who places the Program under this License -may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding -those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among -countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates -the limitation as if written in the body of this License. - -\item -The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions -of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will -be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to -address new problems or concerns. - -Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program -specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any -later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions -either of that version or of any later version published by the Free -Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of -this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software -Foundation. - -\item -If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free -programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author -to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free -Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes -make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals -of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and -of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc -No Warranty -} -\end{center} - -\item -{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty -for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when -otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties -provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed -or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of -merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as -to the quality and performance of the program is with you. Should the -program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing, -repair or correction.} - -\item -{\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing -will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or -redistribute the program as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, -including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising -out of the use or inability to use the program (including but not limited -to loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by -you or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any other -programs), even if such holder or other party has been advised of the -possibility of such damages.} - -\end{enumerate} - - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc End of Terms and Conditions} -\end{center} - - -\pagebreak[2] - -\section*{Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs} - -If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest -possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it -free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these -terms. - - To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to - attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey - the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the - ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. - -\begin{quote} -one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does. \\ -Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ - -This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify -it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by -the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or -(at your option) any later version. - -This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, -but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the -GNU General Public License for more details. - -You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License -along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software -Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. -\end{quote} - -Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. - -If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this -when it starts in an interactive mode: - -\begin{quote} -Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ -Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. \\ -This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it -under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. -\end{quote} - - -The hypothetical commands {\tt show w} and {\tt show c} should show the -appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands -you use may be called something other than {\tt show w} and {\tt show c}; -they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your -program. - -You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your -school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if -necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: - -\begin{quote} -Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program \\ -`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. \\ - -signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989 \\ -Ty Coon, President of Vice -\end{quote} - - -This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program -into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you -may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications -with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library -General Public License instead of this License. - - -\chapter{The GNU Lesser General Public License} - -\begin{center} -{\parindent 0in - -Version 2.1, February 1999 - -Copyright \copyright\ 1991, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\bigskip - -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -\bigskip - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. - -\bigskip - -[This is the first released version of the Lesser GPL. It also counts - as the successor of the GNU Library Public License, version 2, hence - the version number 2.1.] -} - -\end{center} - -\begin{center} -{\bf\large Preamble} -\end{center} - -The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to -share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public Licenses are -intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to -make sure the software is free for all its users. - -This license, the Lesser General Public License, applies to some specially -designated software packages---typically libraries---of the Free Software -Foundation and other authors who decide to use it. You can use it too, -but we suggest you first think carefully about whether this license or the -ordinary General Public License is the better strategy to use in any -particular case, based on the explanations below. - -When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom of use, not -price. 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If the Program does not specify a version number of this -License, you may choose any version ever published by Affero, Inc. - -You may also choose to redistribute modified versions of this program -under any version of the Free Software Foundation's GNU General Public -License version 3 or higher, so long as that version of the GNU GPL -includes terms and conditions substantially equivalent to those of -this license.} - -\item -If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free -programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the -author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by -Affero, Inc., write to us; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our -decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status -of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing -and reuse of software generally. - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc -No Warranty -} -\end{center} - -\item -{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty -for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when -otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties -provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed -or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of -merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as -to the quality and performance of the program is with you. 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6adecb9..0000000 --- a/GPL-LGPL/new-gpl-lgpl.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4063 +0,0 @@ -% Tutorial Text for the Detailed Study and Analysis of GPL and LGPL course -% -% Copyright (C) 2003, 2004, 2005 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -% Verbatim copying and distribution of this entire document is permitted in -% any medium, provided this notice is preserved. - -\documentclass[11pt, letterpaper]{book} -% FILTER_PS: \input{generate-ps-file} -% FILTER_PDF: \input{generate-pdf-file} -% FILTER_HTML: \input{generate-html-file} -% NOT FOUND \input{one-inch-margins} -\usepackage{enumerate} -\usepackage[dvips]{graphicx} - -%\setlength\parskip{0.7em} -%\setlength\parindent{0pt} - -\newcommand{\defn}[1]{\emph{#1}} - -%\pagestyle{empty} - -\begin{document} - -\frontmatter - -\begin{titlepage} - -\begin{center} - -%\vspace{.5in} -\vfill - -\includegraphics{fsf-logo.eps} - -\vfill - -{\Large -{\sc The GPL and Legal Aspects of Free Software Development } \\ - -\vfill - -%\vspace{.7in} - - - -% \vspace{.3in} - -Columbia Law School, New York, NY, USA \\ -\vspace{.1in} -Wednesday, 28 September 2005 -} - -%\vspace{.7in} -\vfill - -{\large -Daniel Ravicher - -Senior Counsel - -Free Software Foundation - -President and Executive Director - -Public Patent Foundation -} - -\vspace{.3in} - - -{\large -David Turner - -GPL Compliance Engineer - -Free Software Foundation -} - -\end{center} - -\vfill - -{\parindent 0in -Copyright \copyright{} 2003, 2004, 2005 \hspace{.2in} Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\vspace{.3in} - -Verbatim copying and distribution of this entire document is permitted in -any medium, provided this notice is preserved. -} - -\end{titlepage} - -\pagestyle{plain} - -\pagenumbering{roman} - -\chapter*{The GPL and Legal Aspects of Free Software Development} - -\textit{Columbia Law School, New York, NY, 28 September 2005} - -\begin{tabular}[t]{ll} -09:00 - 09:25 & Registration / Check-in / Continental Breakfast\\ -&\\ -09:25 - 09:30 & Welcome\\ -&\\ -09:30 - 10:30 & The Basics of How Software is Constructed\\ -& \textit{David Turner}\\ -&\\ -10:30 - 11:15 & The Free Software Ecosystem\\ -& \textit{David Turner}\\ -&\\ -11:15 - 11:30 & Break\\ -&\\ -11:30 - 12:15 & How Copyright Law Applies to Software\\ -& \textit{Daniel Ravicher}\\ -&\\ -12:15 - 13:30 & Lunch with Lecture, ``GPL, Version 3''\\ -& \textit{Prof. Eben Moglen}\\ -&\\ -\end{tabular} - -\begin{tabular}[t]{ll} -13:30 - 15:30 & How the GPL Works from a Distributor Perspective\\ -& \textit{Daniel Ravicher}\\ -&\\ -15:30 - 15:45 & Break\\ -&\\ -15:45 - 17:15 & GPL Compliance\\ -& \textit{Daniel Ravicher}\\ -&\\ -17:15 - 18:00 & Future Considerations\\ -& \textit{Daniel Ravicher}\\ -&\\ -\end{tabular} - -\chapter*{About the Speakers} - -\section*{Eben Moglen} - -Eben Moglen is Professor of Law and Legal History at Columbia -University Law School and General Counsel of the Free Software -Foundation. Professor Moglen earned his PhD in History and law degree -at Yale University during what he sometimes calls his "long, dark -period" in New Haven. After law school he clerked for Judge Edward -Weinfeld of the United States District Court in New York City and to -Justice Thurgood Marshall of the United States Supreme Court. He has -taught at Columbia Law School -- and has held visiting appointments at -Harvard University, Tel-Aviv University and the University of Virginia --- since 1987. In 2003 he was given the Electronic Frontier -Foundation's Pioneer Award for efforts on behalf of freedom in the -electronic society. - -\section*{Daniel Ravicher} - -Dan Ravicher is a registered patent attorney with extensive experience -litigating, licensing, prosecuting, and otherwise counseling clients -with respect to patents. Prior to founding PUBPAT, Mr. Ravicher was -associated with the patent law practice groups of Skadden, Arps, -Slate, Meagher \& Flom LLP, Brobeck, Phleger \& Harrison, LLP, and -Patterson, Belknap, Webb \& Tyler, LLP, all in New York, and served the -Honorable Randall R. Rader, Circuit Judge for the U.S. Court of -Appeals for the Federal Circuit in Washington, D.C. Mr. Ravicher has -published several legal articles and given numerous presentations -regarding patent law. Mr. Ravicher received his law degree from the -University of Virginia School of Law, where he was the Class of 2000 -Franklin O'Blechman Scholar, a Mortimer Caplin Public Service Award -recipient and Editor of the Virginia Journal of Law and Technology, -and his bachelors degree in materials science magna cum laude with -University Honors from the University of South Florida. - -\section*{David Turner} - -David Turner has been a GNU GPL Compliance Engineer for the Free -Software Foundation for three and a half years. Mr. Turner consults -with companies and individuals about free software licensing in -general, focusing on the FSF's licenses. Mr. Turner has given -presentations on the GPL around the world. In addition, Mr. Turner -has written software to help manage copyright assignments and -determine copyright ownership. He has experience with several -languages including C, Python, Perl and Java. Mr. Turner is presently -working on the next version of the GNU GPL. - -\chapter*{Preface} - -This one-day course gives an explanation of the most popular Free -Software copyright license, the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL), -and teaches lawyers, software developers, managers and business people -how to use the GPL (and GPL'd software) successfully in a new Free -Software business and in existing, successful enterprises. - -Attendees should have a general familiarity with software development -processes. A vague understanding of how copyright law applies to software -is also helpful. The tutorial is of most interest to lawyers, software -developers and managers who run software businesses that modify and/or -redistribute software under terms of the GNU GPL (or who wish to do so in -the future), and those who wish to make use of existing GPL'd software in -their enterprise. - -Upon completion of the tutorial, successful attendees can expect to have -learned the following: - -\begin{itemize} - - \item The freedom-defending purpose of each term of the GNU GPL - - \item The redistribution options under the GPL - - \item The obligations when modifying GPL'd software - - \item How to build a plan for proper and successful compliance with the GPL - - \item The business advantages that the GPL provides - - \item The most common business models used in conjunction with the GPL - - \item How existing GPL'd software can be used in existing enterprises - - \item The basics of the LGPL and how it differs from the GPL - - \item How best to understand the complexities regarding derivative - works of software -\end{itemize} - -\bigskip - -These course materials are merely a summary of the highlights of the -course presented. Please be aware that during the actual GPL course, class -discussion supplements this printed curriculum. Simply reading it is -not equivalent to attending the course. - -\tableofcontents - -\pagebreak - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -% END OF ABSTRACTS SECTION -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -% START OF DAY ONE COURSE -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\mainmatter - -\pagenumbering{arabic} - -\chapter{What Is Free Software?} - -Consideration of the GNU General Public License (herein, abbreviated as -\defn{GNU GPL} or just \defn{GPL}) must begin by first considering the broader -world of Free Software. The GPL was not created from a void, rather, -it was created to embody and defend a set of principles that were set -forth at the founding of the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation -(FSF)---the organization that upholds, defends and promotes the philosophy -of software freedom. A prerequisite for understanding the GPL and its -terms and conditions is a basic understanding of the principles behind it. -The GPL is unlike almost all other software licenses in that it is -designed to defend and uphold these principles. - -\section{The Free Software Definition} -\label{Free Software Definition} - -The Free Software Definition is set forth in full on FSF's Web site at -\verb0http://www.fsf.org/0 \verb0philosophy/free-sw.html0. This section -presents an abbreviated version that will focus on the parts that are most -pertinent to the terms of the GPL\@. - -A particular program is Free Software if it grants a particular user of -that program, the following freedoms: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item The freedom to run the program for any purpose - -\item The freedom to change and modify the program - -\item The freedom to copy and share the program - -\item The freedom to share improved versions of the program - -\end{itemize} - -The focus on ``a particular user'' is very pertinent here. It is not -uncommon for the same version of a specific program to grant these -freedoms to some subset of its user base, while others have none or only -some of these freedoms. Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} talks in -detail about how this can happen even if a program is released under the -GPL\@. - -Some people refer to software that gives these freedoms as ``Open -Source.'' Besides having a different political focus than those who -call it Free Software,\footnote{The political differences between the - Free Software Movement and the Open Source Movement are documented - on FSF's Web site at {\tt - http://www.fsf.org/licensing/essays/free-software-for-freedom.html}.} -those who call the software ``Open Source'' are focused on a side -issue. User access to the source code of a program is a prerequisite -to make use of the freedom to modify. However, the important issue is -what freedoms are granted in the license of that source code. -Microsoft's ``Shared Source'' program, for example, gives various -types of access to source code, but almost none of the freedoms -described in this section. - -One key issue central to these freedoms is that there are no -restrictions on how these freedoms can be exercised. Specifically, users -and programmers can exercise these freedoms noncommercially or -commercially. Licenses that grant these freedoms for noncommercial -activities but prohibit them for commercial activities are considered -non-Free. - -In general, software for which most or all of these freedoms are -restricted in any way is called ``non-Free Software.'' Typically, the -term ``proprietary software'' is used more or less interchangeably with -``non-Free Software.'' Personally, I tend to use the term ``non-Free -Software'' to refer to noncommercial software that restricts freedom -(such as ``shareware'') and ``proprietary software'' to refer to -commercial software that restricts freedom (such as nearly all of -Microsoft's and Oracle's offerings). - -The remainder of this section considers each of the four freedoms in -detail. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Run} - -For a program to be Free Software, the freedom to run the program must -be completely unrestricted. This means any use for software the user -can come up with must be permitted. Perhaps, for example, the user -has discovered an innovative use for a particular program, one -that the programmer never could have predicted. Such a use must not -be restricted. - -It was once rare that this freedom was restricted by even proprietary -software; today it is not so rare. Most End User Licensing Agreements -(EULAs) that cover most proprietary software restrict some types of -use. For example, some versions of Microsoft's FrontPage software -prohibit use of the software to create Web sites that generate -negative publicity for Microsoft. Free Software has no such -restrictions; everyone is free to use Free Software for any purpose -whatsoever. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Change and Modify} - -Free Software programs allow users to change, modify and adapt the -software to suit their needs. Access to the source code and related build -scripts are an essential part of this freedom. Without the source code -and the ability to build the binary applications from that source, the -freedom cannot be properly exercised. - -Programmers can take direct benefit from this freedom, and often do. -However, this freedom is also important to users who are not programmers. -Users must have the right to exercise this freedom indirectly in both -commercial and noncommercial settings. For example, users often seek -noncommercial help with the software on email lists and in users groups. -When they find such help, they must have the freedom to recruit -programmers who might altruistically assist them to modify their software. - -The commercial exercise of this freedom is also essential for users. Each -user, or group of users, must have the right to hire anyone they wish in a -competitive free market to modify and change the software. This means -that companies have a right to hire anyone they wish to modify their Free -Software. Additionally, such companies may contract with other companies -to commission software modification. - -\subsection{The Freedom to Copy and Share} - -Users may share Free Software in a variety of ways. Free Software -advocates work to eliminate a fundamental ethical dilemma of the software -age: choosing between obeying a software license, and friendship (by -giving away a copy of a program to your friend who likes the software you are -using). Free Software licenses, therefore, must permit this sort of -altruistic sharing of software among friends. - -The commercial environment must also have the benefits of this freedom. -Commercial sharing typically takes the form of selling copies of Free -Software. Free Software can be sold at any price to anyone. Those who -redistribute Free Software commercially have the freedom to selectively -distribute (you can pick your customers) and to set prices at any level -the redistributor sees fit. - -It is true that many people get copies of Free Software very cheaply (and -sometimes without charge). The competitive free market of Free Software -tends to keep prices low and reasonable. However, if someone is willing -to pay a billion dollars for one copy of the GNU Compiler Collection, such -a sale is completely permitted. - -Another common instance of commercial sharing is service-oriented -distribution. For example, a distribution vendor may provide immediate -security and upgrade distribution via a special network service. Such -distribution is completely permitted for Free Software. - -(Section~\ref{Business Models} of this tutorial talks in detail about -various Free Software business models that take advantage of the freedom -to share commercially.) - -\subsection{The Freedom to Share Improvements} - -The freedom to modify and improve is somewhat empty without the freedom to -share those improvements. The Free Software community is built on the -pillar of altruistic sharing of improved Free Software. Inevitably, a -Free Software project sprouts a mailing list where improvements are shared -freely among members of the development community. Such noncommercial -sharing must be permitted for Free Software to thrive. - -Commercial sharing of modified Free Software is equally important. -For commercial support to exist in a competitive free market, all -developers --- from single-person contractors to large software -companies --- must have the freedom to market their services as -improvers of Free Software. All forms of such service marketing must -be equally available to all. - -For example, selling support services for Free Software is fully -permitted. Companies and individuals can offer themselves as ``the place -to call'' when software fails or does not function properly. For such a -service to be meaningful, the entity offering that service must have the -right to modify and improve the software for the customer to correct any -problems that are beyond mere user error. - -Entities must also be permitted to make available modified versions of -Free Software. Most Free Software programs have a ``standard version'' -that is made available from the primary developers of the software. -However, all who have the software have the ``freedom to fork'' --- that -is, make available nontrivial modified versions of the software on a -permanent or semi-permanent basis. Such freedom is central to vibrant -developer and user interaction. - -Companies and individuals have the right to make true value-added versions -of Free Software. They may use freedom to share improvements to -distribute distinct versions of Free Software with different functionality -and features. Furthermore, this freedom can be exercised to serve a -disenfranchised subset of the user community. If the developers of the -standard version refuse to serve the needs of some of the software's -users, other entities have the right to create a long- or short-lived fork -to serve that sub-community. - -\section{How Does Software Become Free?} - -The last section set forth the freedoms and rights respected by Free -Software. It presupposed, however, that such software exists. This -section discusses how Free Software comes into existence. But first, it -addresses how software can be non-Free in the first place. - -Software can be made proprietary only because it is governed by copyright -law.\footnote{This statement is a bit of an oversimplification. Patents - and trade secrets can cover software and make it effectively non-Free, - one can contract away their rights and freedoms regarding software, or - source code can be practically obscured in binary-only distribution - without reliance on any legal system. However, the primary control - mechanism for software is copyright.} Copyright law, with respect to -software, governs copying, modifying, and redistributing that -software.\footnote{Copyright law in general also governs ``public - performance'' of copyrighted works. There is no generally agreed - definition for public performance of software and version 2 of the GPL - does not govern public performance.} By law, the copyright holder (a.k.a. -the author) of the work controls how others may copy, modify and/or -distribute the work. For proprietary software, these controls are used to -prohibit these activities. In addition, proprietary software distributors -further impede modification in a practical sense by distributing only -binary code and keeping the source code of the software secret. - -Copyright law is a construction. In the USA, the Constitution permits, -but does not require, the creation of copyright law as federal -legislation. Software, since it is an idea fixed in a tangible medium, is -thus covered by the statues, and is copyrighted by default. - -However, this legal construction is not necessarily natural. Software, in -its natural state without copyright, is Free Software. In an imaginary -world with no copyright, the rules would be different. In this -world, when you received a copy of a program's source code, there would be -no default legal system to restrict you from sharing it with others, -making modifications, or redistributing those modified -versions.\footnote{There could still exist legal systems, like our modern - patent system, which could restrict the software in other ways.} - -Software in the real world is copyrighted by default and is -automatically covered by that legal system. However, it is possible -to move software out of the domain of the copyright system. A -copyright holder is always permitted to \defn{disclaim} their -copyright. If copyright is disclaimed, the software is not governed -by copyright law. Software not governed by copyright is in the -``public domain.'' - -\subsection{Public Domain Software} - -An author can create public domain software by disclaiming all copyright -interest on the work. In the USA and other countries that have signed the -Berne convention on copyright, software is copyrighted automatically by -the author when she ``fixes the software into a tangible medium.'' In -the software world, this usually means typing the source code of the -software into a file. - -However, an author can disclaim that default control given to her by the -copyright laws. Once this is done, the software is in the public domain ---- it is no longer covered by copyright. Since it is copyright law that -allows for various controls on software (i.e., prohibition of copying, -modification, and redistribution), removing the software from the -copyright system and placing it into the public domain does yield Free -Software. - -Carefully note that software in the public domain is \emph{not} licensed -in any way. It is nonsensical to say software is ``licensed for the -public domain,'' or any phrase that implies the copyright holder gave -expressed permission to take actions governed by copyright law. - -By contrast, what the copyright holder has done is renounce her copyright -controls on the work. The law gave her controls over the work, and she -has chosen to waive those controls. Software in the public domain is -absent copyright and absent a license. The software freedoms discussed in -Section~\ref{Free Software Definition} are all granted because there is no -legal system in play to take them away. - -\subsection{Why Copyright Free Software?} - -If simply disclaiming copyright on software yields Free Software, then it -stands to reason that putting software into the public domain is the -easiest and most straightforward way to produce Free Software. Indeed, -some major Free Software projects have chosen this method for making their -software Free. However, most of the Free Software in existence \emph{is} -copyrighted. In most cases (particularly in those of FSF and the GNU -Project), this was done due to very careful planning. - -Software released into the public domain does grant freedom to those users -who receive the standard versions on which the original author disclaimed -copyright. However, since the work is not copyrighted, any nontrivial -modification made to the work is fully copyrightable. - -Free Software released into the public domain initially is Free, and -perhaps some who modify the software choose to place their work into the -public domain as well. However, over time, some entities will choose to -proprietarize their modified versions. The public domain body of software -feeds the proprietary software. The public commons disappears, because -fewer and fewer entities have an incentive to contribute back to the -commons. They know that any of their competitors can proprietarize their -enhancements. Over time, almost no interesting work is left in the public -domain, because nearly all new work is done by proprietarization. - -A legal mechanism is needed to redress this problem. FSF was in fact -originally created primarily as a legal entity to defend software freedom, -and that work of defending software freedom is a substantial part of -its work today. Specifically because of this ``embrace, proprietarize and -extend'' cycle, FSF made a conscious choice to copyright its Free Software, -and then license it under ``copyleft'' terms. Many, including the -developers of the kernel named Linux, have chosen to follow this paradigm. - -Copyleft is a legal strategy to defend, uphold and propagate software -freedom. The basic technique of copyleft is as follows: copyright the -software, license it under terms that give all the software freedoms, but -use the copyright law controls to ensure that all who receive a copy of -the software have equal rights and freedom. In essence, copyleft grants -freedom, but forbids others to forbid that freedom to anyone else along -the distribution and modification chains. - -Copyleft is a general concept. Much like ideas for what a computer might -do must be \emph{implemented} by a program that actually does the job, so -too must copyleft be implemented in some concrete legal structure. -``Share and share alike'' is a phrase that is used often enough to explain the -concept behind copyleft, but to actually make it work in the real world, a -true implementation in legal text must exist. The GPL is the primary -implementation of copyleft in copyright licensing language. - -\section{An Ecosystem of Equality} - -The GPL uses copyright law to defend freedom and equally ensure users' -rights. This ultimately creates an ecosystem of equality for both -business and noncommercial users. - -\subsection{The Noncommercial Ecosystem} - -A GPL'd code base becomes a center of a vibrant development and user -community. Traditionally, volunteers, operating noncommercially out of -keen interest or ``scratch an itch'' motivations, produce initial versions -of a GPL'd system. Because of the efficient distribution channels of the -Internet, any useful GPL'd system is adopted quickly by noncommercial -users. - -Fundamentally, the early release and quick distribution of the software -gives birth to a thriving noncommercial community. Users and developers -begin sharing bug reports and bug fixes across a shared intellectual -commons. Users can trust the developers, because they know that if the -developers fail to address their needs or abandon the project, the GPL -ensures that someone else has the right to pick up development. -Developers know that the users cannot redistribute their software without -passing along the rights granted by GPL, so they are assured that every -one of their users is treated equally. - -Because of the symmetry and fairness inherent in GPL'd distribution, -nearly every GPL'd package in existence has a vibrant noncommercial user -and developer base. - -\subsection{The Commercial Ecosystem} - -By the same token, nearly all established GPL'd software systems have a -vibrant commercial community. Nearly every GPL'd system that has gained -wide adoption from noncommercial users and developers eventually begins -to fuel a commercial system around that software. - -For example, consider the Samba file server system that allows Unix-like -systems (including GNU/Linux) to serve files to Microsoft Windows systems. -Two graduate students originally developed Samba in their spare time and -it was deployed noncommercially in academic environments. However, very -soon for-profit companies discovered that the software could work for them -as well, and their system administrators began to use it in place of -Microsoft Windows NT file-servers. This served to lower the cost of -running such servers by orders of magnitude. There was suddenly room in -Windows file-server budgets to hire contractors to improve Samba. Some of -the first people hired to do such work were those same two graduate -students who originally developed the software. - -The noncommercial users, however, were not concerned when these two -fellows began collecting paychecks off of their GPL'd work. They knew -that because of the nature of the GPL that improvements that were -distributed in the commercial environment could easily be folded back into -the standard version. Companies are not permitted to proprietarize -Samba, so the noncommercial users, and even other commercial users are -safe in the knowledge that the software freedom ensured by GPL will remain -protected. - -Commercial developers also work in concert with noncommercial -developers. Those two now-long-since graduated students continue to -contribute to Samba altruistically, but also get paid work doing it. -Priorities change when a client is in the mix, but all the code is -contributed back to the standard version. Meanwhile, many other -individuals have gotten involved noncommercially as developers, -because they want to ``cut their teeth on Free Software,'' or because -the problems interest them. When they get good at it, perhaps they -will move on to another project, or perhaps they will become -commercial developers of the software themselves. - -No party is a threat to another in the GPL software scenario because -everyone is on equal ground. The GPL protects rights of the commercial -and noncommercial contributors and users equally. The GPL creates trust, -because it is a level playing field for all. - -\subsection{Law Analogy} - -In his introduction to Stallman's \emph{Free Software, Free Society}, -Lawrence Lessig draws an interesting analogy between the law and Free -Software. He argues that the laws of a free society must be protected -much like the GPL protects software. So that I might do true justice to -Lessig's argument, I quote it verbatim: - -\begin{quotation} - -A ``free society'' is regulated by law. But there are limits that any free -society places on this regulation through law: No society that kept its -laws secret could ever be called free. No government that hid its -regulations from the regulated could ever stand in our tradition. Law -controls. But it does so justly only when visibly. And law is visible -only when its terms are knowable and controllable by those it regulates, -or by the agents of those it regulates (lawyers, legislatures). - -This condition on law extends beyond the work of a legislature. Think -about the practice of law in American courts. Lawyers are hired by their -clients to advance their clients' interests. Sometimes that interest is -advanced through litigation. In the course of this litigation, lawyers -write briefs. These briefs in turn affect opinions written by judges. -These opinions decide who wins a particular case, or whether a certain law -can stand consistently with a constitution. - -All the material in this process is free in the sense that Stallman means. -Legal briefs are open and free for others to use. The arguments are -transparent (which is different from saying they are good), and the -reasoning can be taken without the permission of the original lawyers. -The opinions they produce can be quoted in later briefs. They can be -copied and integrated into another brief or opinion. The ``source code'' -for American law is by design, and by principle, open and free for anyone -to take. And take lawyers do---for it is a measure of a great brief that -it achieves its creativity through the reuse of what happened before. The -source is free; creativity and an economy is built upon it. - -This economy of free code (and here I mean free legal code) doesn't starve -lawyers. Law firms have enough incentive to produce great briefs even -though the stuff they build can be taken and copied by anyone else. The -lawyer is a craftsman; his or her product is public. Yet the crafting is -not charity. Lawyers get paid; the public doesn't demand such work -without price. Instead this economy flourishes, with later work added to -the earlier. - -We could imagine a legal practice that was different---briefs and -arguments that were kept secret; rulings that announced a result but not -the reasoning. Laws that were kept by the police but published to no one -else. Regulation that operated without explaining its rule. - -We could imagine this society, but we could not imagine calling it -``free.'' Whether or not the incentives in such a society would be better -or more efficiently allocated, such a society could not be known as free. -The ideals of freedom, of life within a free society, demand more than -efficient application. Instead, openness and transparency are the -constraints within which a legal system gets built, not options to be -added if convenient to the leaders. Life governed by software code should -be no less. - -Code writing is not litigation. It is better, richer, more -productive. But the law is an obvious instance of how creativity and -incentives do not depend upon perfect control over the products -created. Like jazz, or novels, or architecture, the law gets built -upon the work that went before. This adding and changing is what -creativity always is. And a free society is one that assures that its -most important resources remain free in just this sense.\footnote{This -quotation is Copyright \copyright{} 2002, Lawrence Lessig. It is -licensed under the terms of -\texttt{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/}{the ``Attribution -License'' version 1.0} or any later version as published by Creative -Commons.} -\end{quotation} - -In essence, lawyers are paid to service the shared commons of legal -infrastructure. Few citizens defend themselves in court or write their -own briefs (even though they are legally permitted to do so) because -everyone would prefer to have an expert do that job. - -The Free Software economy is a market ripe for experts. It -functions similarly to other well established professional fields like the -law. The GPL, in turn, serves as the legal scaffolding that permits the -creation of this vibrant commercial and noncommercial Free Software -economy. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Running Software and Verbatim Copying} -\label{run-and-verbatim} - - -This chapter begins the deep discussion of the details of the terms of -GPL\@. In this chapter, we consider the first two sections: GPL \S\S -0--2. These are the straightforward sections of the GPL that define the -simplest rights that the user receives. - -\section{GPL \S 0: Freedom to Run} -\label{GPLs0} - -\S 0, the opening section of GPL, sets forth that the work is governed by -copyright law. It specifically points out that it is the ``copyright -holder'' who decides if a work is licensed under its terms and explains -how the copyright holder might indicate this fact. - -A bit more subtly, \S 0 makes an inference that copyright law is the only -system under which it is governed. Specifically, it states: -\begin{quote} -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. -\end{quote} -In essence, the license governs \emph{only} those activities, and all other -activities are unrestricted, provided that no other agreements trump GPL -(which they cannot; see Sections~\ref{GPLs6} and~\ref{GPLs7}). This is -very important, because the Free Software community heavily supports -users' rights to ``fair use'' and ``unregulated use'' of copyrighted -material. GPL asserts through this clause that it supports users' rights -to fair and unregulated uses. - -Fair use of copyrighted material is an established legal doctrine that -permits certain activities. Discussion of the various types of fair -use activity are beyond the scope of this tutorial. However, one -important example of fair use is the right to quote a very few lines -(less than seven or so) and reuse them as you would with or without -licensing restrictions. - -Fair use is a doctrine established by the courts or by statute. By -contrast, unregulated uses are those that are not covered by the statue -nor determined by a court to be covered, but are common and enjoyed by -many users. An example of unregulated use is reading a printout of the -program's source code like an instruction book for the purpose of learning -how to be a better programmer. - -\medskip - -Thus, the GPL protects users fair and unregulated use rights precisely by -not attempting to cover them. Furthermore, the GPL ensures the freedom -to run specifically by stating the following: -\begin{quote} -''The act of running the Program is not restricted.'' -\end{quote} -Thus, users are explicitly given the freedom to run by \S 0. - -\medskip - -The bulk of \S 0 not yet discussed gives definitions for other terms used -throughout. The only one worth discussing in detail is ``work based on -the Program.'' The reason this definition is particularly interesting is -not for the definition itself, which is rather straightforward, but -because it clears up a common misconception about the GPL\@. - -The GPL is often mistakenly criticized because it fails to give a -definition of ``derivative work.'' In fact, it would be incorrect and -problematic if the GPL attempted to define this. A copyright license, in -fact, has no control over what may or may not be a derivative work. This -matter is left up to copyright law, not the licenses that utilize it. - -It is certainly true that copyright law as a whole does not propose clear -and straightforward guidelines for what is and is not a derivative -software work under copyright law. However, no copyright license --- not -even the GNU GPL --- can be blamed for this. Legislators and court -opinions must give us guidance to decide the border cases. - -\section{GPL \S 1: Verbatim Copying} -\label{GPLs1} - -GPL \S 1 covers the matter of redistributing the source code of a program -exactly as it was received. This section is quite straightforward. -However, there are a few details worth noting here. - -The phrase ``in any medium'' is important. This, for example, gives the -freedom to publish a book that is the printed copy of the program's source -code. It also allows for changes in the medium of distribution. Some -vendors may ship Free Software on a CD, but others may place it right on -the hard drive of a pre-installed computer. Any such redistribution media -is allowed. - -Preservation of copyright notice and license notifications are mentioned -specifically in \S 1. These are in some ways the most important part of -the redistribution, which is why they are mentioned by name. The GPL -always strives to make it abundantly clear to anyone who receives the -software what its license is. The goal is to make sure users know their -rights and freedoms under GPL, and to leave no reason that someone would be -surprised the software she got was licensed under GPL\@. Thus -throughout the GPL, there are specific references to the importance of -notifying others down the distribution chain that they have rights under -GPL. - -Also mentioned by name is the warranty disclaimer. Most people today do -not believe that software comes with any warranty. Notwithstanding the -proposed state-level UCITA bills (which have never obtained widespread -adoption), there are few or no implied warranties with software. -However, just to be on the safe side, GPL clearly disclaims them, and the -GPL requires redistributors to keep the disclaimer very visible. (See -Sections~\ref{GPLs11} and~\ref{GPLs12} of this tutorial for more on GPL's -warranty disclaimers.) - -Note finally that \S 1 begins to set forth the important defense of -commercial freedom. \S 1 clearly states that in the case of verbatim -copies, one may make money. Redistributors are fully permitted to charge -for the redistribution of copies of Free Software. In addition, they may -provide the warranty protection that the GPL disclaims as an additional -service for a fee. (See Section~\ref{Business Models} for more discussion -on making a profit from Free Software redistribution.) - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\chapter{Derivative Works: Statute and Case Law} - -We digress for this chapter from our discussion of GPL's exact text to -consider the matter of derivative works --- a concept that we must -understand fully before considering \S\S 2--3 of GPL\@. GPL, and Free -Software licensing in general, relies critically on the concept of -``derivative work'' since software that is ``independent,'' (i.e., not -``derivative'') of Free Software need not abide by the terms of the -applicable Free Software license. As much is required by \S 106 of the -Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. \S 106 (2002), and admitted by Free Software -licenses, such as the GPL, which (as we have seen) states in \S 0 that ``a -`work based on the Program' means either the Program or any derivative -work under copyright law.'' It is being a derivative work of Free Software -that triggers the necessity to comply with the terms of the Free Software -license under which the original work is distributed. Therefore, one is -left to ask, just what is a ``derivative work''? The answer to that -question differs depending on which court is being asked. - -The analysis in this chapter sets forth the differing definitions of -derivative work by the circuit courts. The broadest and most -established definition of derivative work for software is the -abstraction, filtration, and comparison test (``the AFC test'') as -created and developed by the Second Circuit. Some circuits, including -the Ninth Circuit and the First Circuit, have either adopted narrower -versions of the AFC test or have expressly rejected the AFC test in -favor of a narrower standard. Further, several other circuits have yet -to adopt any definition of derivative work for software. - -As an introductory matter, it is important to note that literal copying of -a significant portion of source code is not always sufficient to establish -that a second work is a derivative work of an original -program. Conversely, a second work can be a derivative work of an original -program even though absolutely no copying of the literal source code of -the original program has been made. This is the case because copyright -protection does not always extend to all portions of a program's code, -while, at the same time, it can extend beyond the literal code of a -program to its non-literal aspects, such as its architecture, structure, -sequence, organization, operational modules, and computer-user interface. - -\section{The Copyright Act} - -The copyright act is of little, if any, help in determining the definition -of a derivative work of software. However, the applicable provisions do -provide some, albeit quite cursory, guidance. Section 101 of the Copyright -Act sets forth the following definitions: - -\begin{quotation} -A ``computer program'' is a set of statements or instructions to be used -directly or indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain -result. - -A ``derivative work'' is a work based upon one or more preexisting works, -such as a translation, musical arrangement, dramatization, -fictionalization, motion picture version, sound recording, art -reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work -may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial -revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a -whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a ``derivative work.'' -\end{quotation} - -These are the only provisions in the Copyright Act relevant to the -determination of what constitutes a derivative work of a computer -program. Another provision of the Copyright Act that is also relevant to -the definition of derivative work is \S 102(b), which reads as follows: - -\begin{quotation} -In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship -extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, -concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is -described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work. -\end{quotation} - -Therefore, before a court can ask whether one program is a derivative work -of another program, it must be careful not to extend copyright protection -to any ideas, procedures, processes, systems, methods of operation, -concepts, principles, or discoveries contained in the original program. It -is the implementation of this requirement to ``strip out'' unprotectable -elements that serves as the most frequent issue over which courts -disagree. - -\section{Abstraction, Filtration, Comparison Test} - -As mentioned above, the AFC test for determining whether a computer -program is a derivative work of an earlier program was created by the -Second Circuit and has since been adopted in the Fifth, Tenth, and -Eleventh Circuits. Computer Associates Intl., Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 982 -F.2d 693 (2nd Cir. 1992); Engineering Dynamics, Inc. v. Structural -Software, Inc., 26 F.3d 1335 (5th Cir. 1994); Kepner-Tregoe, -Inc. v. Leadership Software, Inc., 12 F.3d 527 (5th Cir. 1994); Gates -Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indust., Ltd., 9 F.3d 823 (10th Cir. 1993); -Mitel, Inc. v. Iqtel, Inc., 124 F.3d 1366 (10th Cir. 1997); 5 Bateman -v. Mnemonics, Inc., 79 F.3d 1532 (11th Cir. 1996); and, Mitek Holdings, -Inc. v. Arce Engineering Co., Inc., 89 F.3d 1548 (11th Cir. 1996). - -Under the AFC test, a court first abstracts from the original program its -constituent structural parts. Then, the court filters from those -structural parts all unprotectable portions, including incorporated ideas, -expression that is necessarily incidental to those ideas, and elements -that are taken from the public domain. Finally, the court compares any and -all remaining kernels of creative expression to the structure of the -second program to determine whether the software programs at issue are -substantially similar so as to warrant a finding that one is the -derivative work of the other. - -Often, the courts that apply the AFC test will perform a quick initial -comparison between the entirety of the two programs at issue in order to -help determine whether one is a derivative work of the other. Such a -holistic comparison, although not a substitute for the full application of -the AFC test, sometimes reveals a pattern of copying that is not otherwise -obvious from the application of the AFC test when, as discussed below, -only certain components of the original program are compared to the second -program. If such a pattern is revealed by the quick initial comparison, -the court is more likely to conclude that the second work is indeed a -derivative of the original. - -\subsection{Abstraction} - -The first step courts perform under the AFC test is separation of the -work's ideas from its expression. In a process akin to reverse -engineering, the courts dissect the original program to isolate each level -of abstraction contained within it. Courts have stated that the -abstractions step is particularly well suited for computer programs -because it breaks down software in a way that mirrors the way it is -typically created. However, the courts have also indicated that this step -of the AFC test requires substantial guidance from experts, because it is -extremely fact and situation specific. - -By way of example, one set of abstraction levels is, in descending order -of generality, as follows: the main purpose, system architecture, abstract -data types, algorithms and data structures, source code, and object -code. As this set of abstraction levels shows, during the abstraction step -of the AFC test, the literal elements of the computer program, namely the -source and object code, are defined as particular levels of -abstraction. Further, the source and object code elements of a program are -not the only elements capable of forming the basis for a finding that a -second work is a derivative of the program. In some cases, in order to -avoid a lengthy factual inquiry by the court, the owner of the copyright in -the original work will submit its own list of what it believes to be the -protected elements of the original program. In those situations, the court -will forgo performing its own abstraction, and proceed to the second step of -the AFC test. - -\subsection{Filtration} - -The most difficult and controversial part of the AFC test is the second -step, which entails the filtration of protectable expression contained in -the original program from any unprotectable elements nestled therein. In -determining which elements of a program are unprotectable, courts employ a -myriad of rules and procedures to sift from a program all the portions -that are not eligible for copyright protection. - -First, as set forth in \S 102(b) of the Copyright Act, any and all ideas -embodied in the program are to be denied copyright protection. However, -implementing this rule is not as easy as it first appears. The courts -readily recognize the intrinsic difficulty in distinguishing between ideas -and expression and that, given the varying nature of computer programs, -doing so will be done on an ad hoc basis. The first step of the AFC test, -the abstraction, exists precisely to assist in this endeavor by helping -the court separate out all the individual elements of the program so that -they can be independently analyzed for their expressive nature. - -A second rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of -the AFC test is the doctrine of merger, which denies copyright protection -to expression necessarily incidental to the idea being expressed. The -reasoning behind this doctrine is that when there is only one way to -express an idea, the idea and the expression merge, meaning that the -expression cannot receive copyright protection due to the bar on copyright -protection extending to ideas. In applying this doctrine, a court will ask -whether the program's use of particular code or structure is necessary for -the efficient implementation of a certain function or process. If so, then -that particular code or structure is not protected by copyright and, as a -result, it is filtered away from the remaining protectable expression. - -A third rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of -the AFC test is the doctrine of scenes a faire, which denies copyright -protection to elements of a computer program that are dictated by external -factors. Such external factors can include: - -\begin{itemize} - - \item The mechanical -specifications of the computer on which a particular program is intended -to operate - - \item Compatibility requirements of other programs with which a -program is designed to operate in conjunction - - \item Computer manufacturers' -design standards - - \item Demands of the industry being serviced, and - -widely accepted programming practices within the computer industry - -\end{itemize} - -Any code or structure of a program that was shaped predominantly in -response to these factors is filtered out and not protected by -copyright. Lastly, elements of a computer program are also to be filtered -out if they were taken from the public domain or fail to have sufficient -originality to merit copyright protection. - -Portions of the source or object code of a computer program are rarely -filtered out as unprotectable elements. However, some distinct parts of -source and object code have been found unprotectable. For example, -constant s, the invariable integers comprising part of formulas used to -perform calculations in a program, are unprotectable. Further, although -common errors found in two programs can provide strong evidence of -copying, they are not afforded any copyright protection over and above the -protection given to the expression containing them. - -\subsection{Comparison} - -The third and final step of the AFC test entails a comparison of the -original program's remaining protectable expression to a second -program. The issue will be whether any of the protected expression is -copied in the second program and, if so, what relative importance the -copied portion has with respect to the original program overall. The -ultimate inquiry is whether there is ``substantial'' similarity between -the protected elements of the original program and the potentially -derivative work. The courts admit that this process is primarily -qualitative rather than quantitative and is performed on a case-by-case -basis. In essence, the comparison is an ad hoc determination of whether -the protectable elements of the original program that are contained in the -second work are significant or important parts of the original program. If -so, then the second work is a derivative work of the first. If, however, -the amount of protectable elements copied in the second work are so small -as to be de minimis, then the second work is not a derivative work of the -original. - -\section{Analytic Dissection Test} - -The Ninth Circuit has adopted the analytic dissection test to determine -whether one program is a derivative work of another. Apple Computer, -Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994). The analytic -dissection test first considers whether there are substantial similarities -in both the ideas and expressions of the two works at issue. Once the -similar features are identified, analytic dissection is used to determine -whether any of those similar features are protected by copyright. This -step is the same as the filtration step in the AFC test. After identifying -the copyrightable similar features of the works, the court then decides -whether those features are entitled to ``broad'' or ``thin'' -protection. ``Thin'' protection is given to non-copyrightable facts or -ideas that are combined in a way that affords copyright protection only -from their alignment and presentation, while ``broad'' protection is given -to copyrightable expression itself. Depending on the degree of protection -afforded, the court then sets the appropriate standard for a subjective -comparison of the works to determine whether, as a whole, they are -sufficiently similar to support a finding that one is a derivative work of -the other. ``Thin'' protection requires the second work be virtually -identical in order to be held a derivative work of an original, while -``broad'' protection requires only a ``substantial similarity.'' - -\section{No Protection for ``Methods of Operation''} - -The First Circuit expressly rejected the AFC test and, instead, takes a -much narrower view of the meaning of derivative work for software. The -First Circuit holds that ``method of operation,'' as used in \S 102(b) of -the Copyright Act, refers to the means by which users operate -computers. Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland IntÂ’l., Inc., 49 F.3d 807 -(1st Cir. 1995). More specifically, the court held that a menu command -hierarchy for a computer program was uncopyrightable because it did not -merely explain and present the programÂ’s functional capabilities to the -user, but also served as a method by which the program was operated and -controlled. As a result, under the First CircuitÂ’s test, literal copying -of a menu command hierarchy, or any other ``method of operation,'' cannot -form the basis for a determination that one work is a derivative of -another. It is also reasonable to expect that the First Circuit will read -the unprotectable elements set forth in \S 102(b) broadly, and, as such, -promulgate a definition of derivative work that is much narrower than that -which exists under the AFC test. - -\section{No Test Yet Adopted} - -Several circuits, most notably the Fourth and Seventh, have yet to -declare their definition of derivative work and whether or not the -AFC, Analytic Dissection, or some other test best fits their -interpretation of copyright law. Therefore, uncertainty exists with -respect to determining the extent to which a software program is a -derivative work of another in those circuits. However, one may presume -that they would give deference to the AFC test since it is by far the -majority rule amongst those circuits that have a standard for defining -a software derivative work. - -\section{Cases Applying Software Derivative Work Analysis} - -In the preeminent case regarding the definition of a derivative work for -software, Computer Associates v. Altai, the plaintiff alleged that its -program, Adapter, which was used to handle the differences in operating -system calls and services, was infringed by the defendant's competitive -program, Oscar. About 30\% of Oscar was literally the same code as -that in Adapter. After the suit began, the defendant rewrote those -portions of Oscar that contained Adapter code in order to produce a new -version of Oscar that was functionally competitive with Adapter, without -have any literal copies of its code. Feeling slighted still, the -plaintiff alleged that even the second version of Oscar, despite having no -literally copied code, also infringed its copyrights. In addressing that -question, the Second Circuit promulgated the AFC test. - -In abstracting the various levels of the program, the court noted a -similarity between the two programs' parameter lists and macros. However, -following the filtration step of the AFC test, only a handful of the lists -and macros were protectable under copyright law because they were either -in the public domain or required by functional demands on the -program. With respect to the handful of parameter lists and macros that -did qualify for copyright protection, after performing the comparison step -of the AFC test, it was reasonable for the district court to conclude that -they did not warrant a finding of infringement given their relatively minor -contribution to the program as a whole. Likewise, the similarity between -the organizational charts of the two programs was not substantial enough -to support a finding of infringement because they were too simple and -obvious to contain any original expression. - -Perhaps not surprisingly, there have been few cases involving a highly -detailed software derivative work analysis. Most often, cases involve -clearer basis for decision, including frequent bad faith on the part of -the defendant or overaggressiveness on the part of the plaintiff. -However, no cases involving Free Software licensing have ever gone to -court. As Free Software becomes an ever-increasingly important part of -the economy, it remains to be seen if battle lines will be -drawn over whether particular programs infringe the rights of Free -Software developers or whether the entire community, including industry, -adopts norms avoiding such risk. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - -\chapter{Modified Source and Binary Distribution} -\label{source-and-binary} - -In this chapter, we discuss the two core sections that define the rights -and obligations for those who modify, improve, and/or redistribute GPL'd -software. These sections, \S\S 2--3, define the central core rights and -requirements of GPL\@. - -\section{GPL \S 2: Share and Share Alike} - -For many, this is where the ``magic'' happens that defends software -freedom along the distribution chain. \S 2 is the only place in the GPL -that governs the modification controls of copyright law. If someone -modifies a GPL'd program, she is bound in the making those changes by \S -2. The goal here is to ensure that the body of GPL'd software, as it -continues and develops, remains Free as in freedom. - -To achieve that goal, \S 2 first sets forth that the rights of -redistribution of modified versions are the same as those for verbatim -copying, as presented in \S 1. Therefore, the details of charging, -keeping copyright notices intact, and other \S 1 provisions are in tact -here as well. However, there are three additional requirements. - -The first (\S 2(a)) requires that modified files carry ``prominent -notices'' explaining what changes were made and the date of such -changes. The goal here is not to put forward some specific way of -marking changes nor controlling the process of how changes get made. -Primarily, \S 2(a) seeks to ensure that those receiving modified -versions know the history of changes to the software. For some users, -it is important to know that they are using the standard version of -program, because while there are many advantages to using a fork, -there are a few disadvantages. Users should be informed about the -historical context of the software version they use, so that they can -make proper support choices. Finally, \S 2(a) serves an academic -purpose --- ensuring that future developers can use a diachronic -approach to understand the software. - -\medskip - -The second requirement (\S 2(b)) contains the four short lines that embody -the legal details of ``share and share alike.'' These 46 words are -considered by some to be the most worthy of careful scrutiny because \S -2(b) can be a source of great confusion when not properly understood. - -In considering \S 2(b), first note the qualifier: it only applies to -derivative works that ``you distribute or publish.'' Despite years of -education efforts by FSF on this matter, many still believe that modifiers -of GPL'd software are required by the license to publish or otherwise -share their changes. On the contrary, \S 2(b) {\bf does not apply if} the -changes are never distributed. Indeed, the freedom to make private, -personal, unshared changes to software for personal use only should be -protected and defended.\footnote{FSF does maintain that there is an {\bf - ethical} obligation to redistribute changes that are generally useful, - and often encourages companies and individuals to do so. However, there - is a clear distinction between what one {\bf ought} to do and what one - {\bf must} do.} - -Next, we again encounter the same matter that appears in \S 0, in the -following text: -\begin{quote} -``...that in whole or part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof.'' -\end{quote} -Again, the GPL relies here on what the copyright law says is a derivative -work. If, under copyright law, the modified version ``contains or is -derived from'' the GPL'd software, then the requirements of \S 2(b) -apply. The GPL invokes its control as a copyright license over the -modification of the work in combination with its control over distribution -of the work. - -The final clause of \S 2(b) describes what the licensee must do if she is -distributing or publishing a work that is deemed a derivative work under -copyright law --- namely, the following: -\begin{quote} -[The work must] be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties -under the terms of this License. -\end{quote} -That is probably the most tightly-packed phrase in all of the GPL\@. -Consider each subpart carefully. - -The work ``as a whole'' is what is to be licensed. This is an important -point that \S 2 spends an entire paragraph explaining; thus this phrase is -worthy of a lengthy discussion here. As a programmer modifies a software -program, she generates new copyrighted material --- fixing expressions of -ideas into the tangible medium of electronic file storage. That -programmer is indeed the copyright holder of those new changes. However, -those changes are part and parcel to the original work distributed to -the programmer under GPL\@. Thus, the license of the original work -affects the license of the new whole derivative work. - -% {\cal I} -\newcommand{\gplusi}{$\mathcal{G\!\!+\!\!I}$} -\newcommand{\worki}{$\mathcal{I}$} -\newcommand{\workg}{$\mathcal{G}$} - -\label{separate-and-independent} - -It is certainly possible to take an existing independent work (called -\worki{}) and combine it with a GPL'd program (called \workg{}). The -license of \worki{}, when it is distributed as a separate and independent -work, remains the prerogative of the copyright holder of \worki{}. -However, when \worki{} is combined with \workg{}, it produces a new work -that is the combination of the two (called \gplusi{}). The copyright of -this combined work, \gplusi{}, is held by the original copyright -holder of each of the two works. - -In this case, \S 2 lays out the terms by which \gplusi{} may be -distributed and copied. By default, under copyright law, the copyright -holder of \worki{} would not have been permitted to distribute \gplusi{}; -copyright law forbids it without the expressed permission of the copyright -holder of \workg{}. (Imagine, for a moment, if \workg{} were a Microsoft -product --- would they give you permission to create and distribute -\gplusi{} without paying them a hefty sum?) The license of \workg{}, the -GPL, sets forth ahead of time options for the copyright holder of \worki{} -who may want to create and distribute \gplusi{}. This pregranted -permission to create and distribute derivative works, provided the terms -of GPL are upheld, goes far above and beyond the permissions that one -would get with a typical work not covered by a copyleft license. Thus, to -say that this restriction is any way unreasonable is simply ludicrous. - -\medskip - -The next phrase of note in \S 2(b) is ``licensed...at no charge.'' -This is a source of great confusion to many. Not a month goes by that -FSF does not receive an email that claims to point out ``a -contradiction in GPL'' because \S 2 says that redistributors cannot -charge for modified versions of GPL'd software, but \S 1 says that -they can. The ``at no charge'' does not prohibit redistributors from -charging when performing the acts governed by copyright -law,\footnote{Recall that you could by default charge for any acts not -governed by copyright law, because the license controls are confined -by copyright.} but rather that they cannot charge a fee for the -\emph{license itself}. In other words, redistributors of (modified -and unmodified) GPL'd works may charge any amount they choose for -performing the modifications on contract or the act of transferring -the copy to the customer, but they may not charge a separate licensing -fee for the software. - -\S 2(b) further states that the software must ``be licensed...to all -third parties.'' This too has led to some confusions, and feeds the -misconception mentioned earlier --- that all modified versions must made -available to the public at large. However, the text here does not say -that. Instead, it says that the licensing under terms of the GPL must -extend to anyone who might, through the distribution chain, receive a copy -of the software. Distribution to all third parties is not mandated here, -but \S 2(b) does require redistributors to license the derivative works in -a way that extends to all third parties who may ultimately receive a -copy of the software. - -In summary, \S 2(b) says what terms under which the third parties must -receive this no-charge license. Namely, they receive it ``under the terms -of this License,'' the GPL. When an entity \emph{chooses} to redistribute -a derivative work of GPL'd software, the license of that whole derivative -work must be GPL and only GPL\@. In this manner, \S 2(b) dovetails nicely -with \S 6 (as discussed in Section~\ref{GPLs6} of this tutorial). - -\medskip - -The final paragraph of \S 2 is worth special mention. It is possible and -quite common to aggregate various software programs together on one -distribution medium. Computer manufacturers do this when they ship a -pre-installed hard drive, and GNU/Linux distribution vendors do this to -give a one-stop CD or URL for a complete operating system with necessary -applications. The GPL very clearly permits such ``mere aggregation'' with -programs under any license. Despite what you hear from its critics, the -GPL is nothing like a virus, not only because the GPL is good for you and -a virus is bad for you, but also because simple contact with a GPL'd -code-base does not impact the license of other programs. Actual effort -must be expended by a programmer to cause a work to fall under the terms -of the GPL. Redistributors are always welcome to simply ship GPL'd -software alongside proprietary software or other unrelated Free Software, -as long as the terms of GPL are adhered to for those packages that are -truly GPL'd. - -\section{GPL \S 3: Producing Binaries} -\label{GPL-Section-3} -% FIXME: need name of a novelist who writes very obscurely and obliquely. - -Software is a strange beast when compared to other copyrightable works. -It is currently impossible to make a film or a book that can be truly -obscured. Ultimately, the full text of a novel, even one written by -William Faulkner, must presented to the reader as words in some -human-readable language so that they can enjoy the work. A film, even one -directed by David Lynch, must be perceptible by human eyes and ears to -have any value. - -Software is not so. While the source code, the human-readable -representation of software is of keen interest to programmers, users and -programmers alike cannot make the proper use of software in that -human-readable form. Binary code --- the ones and zeros that the computer -can understand --- must be predicable and attainable for the software to -be fully useful. Without the binaries, be they in object or executable -form, the software serves only the didactic purposes of computer science. - -Under copyright law, binary representations of the software are simply -derivative works of the source code. Applying a systematic process (i.e., -``compilation'') to a work of source code yields binary code. The binary -code is now a new work of expression fixed in the tangible medium of -electronic file storage. - -Therefore, for GPL'd software to be useful, the GPL, since it governs the -rules for creation of derivative works, must grant permission for the -generation of binaries. Furthermore, notwithstanding the relative -popularity of source-based GNU/Linux distributions like Gentoo, users find -it extremely convenient to receive distribution of binary software. Such -distribution is the redistribution of derivative works of the software's -source code. \S 3 addresses the matter of creation and distribution of -binary versions. - -Under \S 3, binary versions may be created and distributed under the -terms of \S\S 1--2, so all the material previously discussed applies -here. However, \S 3 must go a bit further. Access to the software's -source code is an incontestable prerequisite for the exercise of the -fundamental freedoms to modify and improve the software. Making even -the most trivial changes to a software program at the binary level is -effectively impossible. \S 3 must ensure that the binaries are never -distributed without the source code, so that these freedoms are passed -through the distribution chain. - -\S 3 permits distribution of binaries, and then offers three options for -distribution of source code along with binaries. The most common and the -least complicated is the option given under \S 3(a). - -\S 3(a) offers the option to directly accompany the source code alongside -the distribution of the binaries. This is by far the most convenient -option for most distributors, because it means that the source-code -provision obligations are fully completed at the time of binary -distribution (more on that later). - -Under \S 3(a), the source code provided must be the ``corresponding source -code.'' Here ``corresponding'' primarily means that the source code -provided must be that code used to produce the binaries being distributed. -That source code must also be ``complete.'' A later paragraph of \S 3 -explains in detail what is meant by ``complete.'' In essence, it is all -the material that a programmer of average skill would need to actually use -the source code to produce the binaries she has received. Complete source -is required so that, if the licensee chooses, she should be able to -exercise her freedoms to modify and redistribute changes. Without the -complete source, it would not be possible to make changes that were -actually directly derived from the version received. - -Furthermore, \S 3 is defending against a tactic that has in fact been -seen in FSF's GPL enforcement. Under GPL, if you pay a high price for -a copy of GPL'd binaries (which comes with corresponding source, of -course), you have the freedom to redistribute that work at any fee you -choose, or not at all. Sometimes, companies attempt a GPL-violating -cozenage whereby they produce very specialized binaries (perhaps for -an obscure architecture). They then give source code that does -correspond, but withhold the ``incantations'' and build plans they -used to make that source compile into the specialized binaries. -Therefore, \S 3 requires that the source code include ``meta-material'' like -scripts, interface definitions, and other material that is used to -``control compilation and installation'' of the binaries. In this -manner, those further down the distribution chain are assured that -they have the unabated freedom to build their own derivative works -from the sources provided. - -FSF (as authors of GPL) realizes that software distribution comes in many -forms. Embedded manufacturers, for example, have the freedom to put -GPL'd software into their PDAs with very tight memory and space -constraints. In such cases, putting the source right alongside the -binaries on the machine itself might not be an option. While it is -recommended that this be the default way that people comply with GPL, the -GPL does provide options when such distribution is infeasible. - -\S 3, therefore, allows source code to be provided on any physical -``medium customarily used for software interchange.'' By design, this -phrase covers a broad spectrum. At best, FSF can viably release a new GPL -every ten years or so. Thus, phrases like this must be adaptive to -changes in the technology. When GPL version 2 was first published in June -1991, distribution on magnetic tape was still common, and CD was -relatively new. Today, CD is the default, and for larger systems DVD-R is -gaining adoption. This language must adapt with changing technology. - -Meanwhile, the binding created by the word ``customarily'' is key. Many -incorrectly believe that distributing binary on CD and source on the -Internet is acceptable. In the corporate world, it is indeed customary to -simply download CDs worth of data over a T1 or email large file -attachments. However, even today in the USA, many computer users with -CD-ROM drives are not connected to the Internet, and most people connected -to the Internet are connected via a 56K dial-up connection. Downloading -CDs full of data is not customary for them in the least. In some cities -in Africa, computers are becoming more common, but Internet connectivity -is still available only at a few centralized locations. Thus, the -``customs'' here must be normalized for a worldwide userbase. Simply -providing source on the Internet --- while it is a kind, friendly and -useful thing to do --- is not usually sufficient. - -Note, however, a major exception to this rule, given by the last paragraph -of \S 3. \emph{If} distribution of the binary files is made only on the -Internet (i.e., ``from a designated place''), \emph{then} simply providing -the source code right alongside the binaries in the same place is -sufficient to comply with \S 3. - -\medskip - -As is shown above, Under \S 3(a), embedded manufacturers can put the -binaries on the device and ship the source code along on a CD\@. However, -sometimes this turns out to be too costly. Including a CD with every -device could prove too costly, and may practically (although not legally) -prohibit using GPL'd software. For this situation and others like it, \S -3(b) is available. - -\S 3(b) allows a distributor of binaries to instead provide a written -offer for source code alongside those binaries. This is useful in two -specific ways. First, it may turn out that most users do not request the -source, and thus the cost of producing the CDs is saved --- a financial -and environmental windfall. In addition, along with a \S 3(b) compliant -offer for source, a binary distributor might choose to \emph{also} give a -URL for source code. Many who would otherwise need a CD with source might -turn out to have those coveted high bandwidth connections, and are able to -download the source instead --- again yielding environmental and financial -windfalls. - -However, note that regardless of how many users prefer to get the -source online, \S 3(b) does place lasting long-term obligations on the -binary distributor. The binary distributor must be prepared to honor -that offer for source for three years and ship it out (just as they -would have had to do under \S 3(a)) at a moment's notice when they -receive such a request. There is real organizational cost here: -support engineers must be trained how to route source requests, and -source CD images for every release version for the last three years -must be kept on hand to burn such CDs quickly. The requests might not -even come from actual customers; the offer for source must be valid -for ``any third party.'' - -That phrase is another place where some get confused --- thinking again -that full public distribution of source is required. The offer for source -must be valid for ``any third party'' because of the freedoms of -redistribution granted by \S\S 1--2. A company may ship a binary image -and an offer for source to only one customer. However, under GPL, that -customer has the right to redistribute that software to the world if she -likes. When she does, that customer has an obligation to make sure that -those who receive the software from her can exercise their freedoms under -GPL --- including the freedom to modify, rebuild, and redistribute the -source code. - -\S 3(c) is created to save her some trouble, because by itself \S 3(b) -would unfairly favor large companies. \S 3(b) allows the -separation of the binary software from the key tool that people can use -to exercise their freedom. The GPL permits this separation because it is -good for redistributors, and those users who turn out not to need the -source. However, to ensure equal rights for all software users, anyone -along the distribution chain must have the right to get the source and -exercise those freedoms that require it. - -Meanwhile, \S 3(b)'s compromise primarily benefits companies who -distribute binary software commercially. Without \S 3(c), that benefit -would be at the detriment of the companies' customers; the burden of -source code provision would be unfairly shifted to the companies' -customers. A customer, who had received binaries with a \S 3(b)-compliant -offer, would be required under GPL (sans \S 3(c)) to acquire the source, -merely to give a copy of the software to a friend who needed it. \S 3(c) -reshifts this burden to entity who benefits from \S 3(b). - -\S 3(c) allows those who undertake \emph{noncommercial} distribution to -simply pass along a \S 3(b)-compliant source code offer. The customer who -wishes to give a copy to her friend can now do so without provisioning the -source, as long as she gives that offer to her friend. By contrast, if -she wanted to go into business for herself selling CDs of that software, -she would have to acquire the source and either comply via \S 3(a), or -write her own \S 3(b)-compliant source offer. - -This process is precisely the reason why a \S 3(b) source offer must be -valid for all third parties. At the time the offer is made, there is no -way of knowing who might end up noncommercially receiving a copy of the -software. Companies who choose to comply via \S 3(b) must thus be -prepared to honor all incoming source code requests. For this and the -many other additional necessary complications under \S\S 3(b--c), it is -only rarely a better option than complying via \S 3(a). - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{The Implied Patent Grant in GPL} - -We digress again briefly from our section-by-section consideration of GPL -to consider the interaction between the terms of GPL and patent law. The -GPL, despite being silent with respect to patents, actually confers on its -licensees more rights to a licensor's patents than those licenses that -purport to address the issue. This is the case because patent law, under -the doctrine of implied license, gives to each distributee of a patented -article a license from the distributor to practice any patent claims owned -or held by the distributor that cover the distributed article. The -implied license also extends to any patent claims owned or held by the -distributor that cover ``reasonably contemplated uses'' of the patented -article. To quote the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals, the highest court -for patent cases other than the Supreme Court: - -\begin{quotation} -Generally, when a seller sells a product without restriction, it in -effect promises the purchaser that in exchange for the price paid, it will -not interfere with the purchaser's full enjoyment of the product -purchased. The buyer has an implied license under any patents of the -seller that dominate the product or any uses of the product to which the -parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put. -\end{quotation} -Hewlett-Packard Co. v. Repeat-O-Type Stencil Mfg. Corp., Inc., 123 F.3d -1445 (Fed. Cir. 1997). - -Of course, Free Software is licensed, not sold, and there are indeed -restrictions placed on the licensee, but those differences are not likely -to prevent the application of the implied license doctrine to Free -Software, because software licensed under the GPL grants the licensee the -right to make, use, and sell the software, each of which are exclusive -rights of a patent holder. Therefore, although the GPL does not expressly -grant the licensee the right to do those things under any patents the -licensor may have that cover the software or its reasonably contemplated -uses, by licensing the software under the GPL, the distributor impliedly -licenses those patents to the GPL licensee with respect to the GPL -licensed software. - -An interesting issue regarding this implied patent license of GPL'd -software is what would be considered ``uses of the [software] to which -the parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put.'' A -clever advocate may argue that the implied license granted by GPL is -larger in scope than the express license in other Free Software -licenses with express patent grants, in that, the patent license -clause of many of those licenses are specifically limited to the -patent claims covered by the code as licensed by the patentee. - -To the contrary, GPL's implied patent license grants the GPL licensee a -patent license to do much more than just that because the GPL licensee, -under the doctrine of implied patent license, is free to practice any -patent claims held by the licensor that cover ``reasonably contemplated -uses'' of the GPL'd code, which may very well include creation and -distribution of derivative works since the GPL's terms, under which the -patented code is distributed, expressly permits such activity. - -Further supporting this result is the Federal Circuit's pronouncement that -the recipient of a patented article has, not only an implied license to -make, use, and sell the article, but also an implied patent license to -repair the article to enable it to function properly, Bottom Line Mgmt., -Inc. v. Pan Man, Inc., 228 F.3d 1352 (Fed. Cir. 2000). Additionally, the -Federal Circuit extended that rule to include any future recipients of the -patented article, not just the direct recipient from the distributor. -This theory comports well with the idea of Free Software, whereby software -is distributed amongst many entities within the community for the purpose -of constant evolution and improvement. In this way, the law of implied -patent license used by the GPL ensures that the community mutually -benefits from the licensing of patents to any single community member. - -Note that simply because GPL'd software has an implied patent license does -not mean that any patents held by a distributor of GPL'd code become -worthless. To the contrary, the patents are still valid and enforceable -against either: - -\begin{enumerate} - \renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}} - \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textup{(\theenumi)}} - -\item any software other than that licensed under the GPL by the patent - holder, and - -\item any party that does not comply with the GPL -with respect to the licensed software. -\end{enumerate} - -\newcommand{\compB}{$\mathcal{B}$} -\newcommand{\compA}{$\mathcal{A}$} - -For example, if Company \compA{} has a patent on advanced Web browsing, but -also licenses a Web browsing software program under the GPL, then it -cannot assert the patent against any party that takes a license to its -program under the GPL. However, if a party uses that program without -complying with the GPL, then Company \compA{} can assert, not just copyright -infringement claims against the non-GPL-compliant party, but also -infringement of the patent, because the implied patent license only -extends to use of the software in accordance with the GPL. Further, if -Company \compB{} distributes a competitive advanced Web browsing program, -Company \compA{} is free to assert its patent against any user or -distributor of that product. It is irrelevant whether Company \compB's -program is distributed under the GPL, as Company \compB{} can not grant -implied licenses to Company \compA's patent. - -This result also reassures companies that they need not fear losing their -proprietary value in patents to competitors through the GPL implied patent -license, as only those competitors who adopt and comply with the GPL's -terms can benefit from the implied patent license. To continue the -example above, Company \compB{} does not receive a free ride on Company -\compA's patent, as Company \compB{} has not licensed-in and then -redistributed Company A's advanced Web browser under the GPL. If Company -\compB{} does do that, however, Company \compA{} still has not lost -competitive advantage against Company \compB{}, as Company \compB{} must then, -when it re-distributes Company \compA's program, grant an implied license -to any of its patents that cover the program. Further, if Company \compB{} -relicenses an improved version of Company A's program, it must do so under -the GPL, meaning that any patents it holds that cover the improved version -are impliedly licensed to any licensee. As such, the only way Company -\compB{} can benefit from Company \compA's implied patent license, is if it, -itself, distributes Company \compA's software program and grants an -implied patent license to any of its patents that cover that program. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Defending Freedom on Many Fronts} - -Chapters~\ref{run-and-verbatim} and ~\ref{source-and-binary} presented the -core freedom-defending provisions of GPL\@, which are in \S\S 0--3. \S\S -4--7 of the GPL are designed to ensure that \S\S 0--3 are not infringed, -are enforceable, are kept to the confines of copyright law, and are not -trumped by other copyright agreements or components of other entirely -separate legal systems. In short, while \S\S 0--3 are the parts of the -license that defend the freedoms of users and programmers, \S\S 4--7 are -the parts of the license that keep the playing field clear so that \S\S -0--3 can do their jobs. - -\section{GPL \S 4: Termination on Violation} -\label{GPLs4} - -\S 4 is GPL's termination clause. Upon first examination, it seems -strange that a license with the goal of defending users' and programmers' -freedoms for perpetuity in an irrevocable way would have such a clause. -However, upon further examination, the difference between irrevocability -and this termination clause becomes clear. - -The GPL is irrevocable in the sense that once a copyright holder grants -rights for someone to copy, modify and redistribute the software under -terms of the GPL, they cannot later revoke that grant. Since the GPL has -no provision allowing the copyright holder to take such a prerogative, the -license is granted as long as the copyright remains in effect.\footnote{In - the USA, due to unfortunate legislation, the length of copyright is - nearly perpetual, even though the Constitution forbids perpetual - copyright.} The copyright holder has the right to relicense the same -work under different licenses (see Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} -of this tutorial), or to stop distributing the GPL'd version (assuming \S -3(b) was never used), but she may not revoke the rights under GPL -already granted. - -In fact, when an entity looses their right to copy, modify and distribute -GPL'd software, it is because of their \emph{own actions}, not that of -the copyright holder. The copyright holder does not decided when \S 4 -termination occurs (if ever), the actions of the licensee does. - -Under copyright law, the GPL has granted various rights and freedoms to -the licensee to perform specific types of copying, modification, and -redistribution. By default, all other types of copying, modification, and -redistribution are prohibited. \S 4 says that if you undertake any of -those other types (e.g., redistributing binary-only in violation of \S 3), -then all rights under the license --- even those otherwise permitted for -those who have not violated --- terminate automatically. - -\S 4 gives GPL teeth. If licensees fail to adhere to the license, then -they are stuck. They must completely cease and desist from all -copying, modification and distribution of that GPL'd software. - -At that point, violating licensees must gain the forgiveness of the -copyright holder to have their rights restored. Alternatively, they could -negotiate another agreement, separate from GPL, with the copyright -holder. Both are common practice. - -At FSF, it is part of the mission to spread software freedom. When FSF -enforces GPL, the goal is to bring the violator back into compliance as -quickly as possible, and redress the damage caused by the violation. -That is FSF's steadfast position in a violation negotiation --- comply -with the license and respect freedom. - -However, other entities who do not share the full ethos of software -freedom as institutionalized by FSF pursue GPL violations differently. -MySQL AB, a company that produces the GPL'd MySQL database, upon -discovering GPL violations typically negotiates a proprietary software -license separately for a fee. While this practice is not one that FSF -would ever consider undertaking or even endorsing, it is a legal way for -copyright holders to proceed. - -\section{GPL \S 5: Acceptance, Copyright Style} -\label{GPLs5} - -\S 5 brings us to perhaps the most fundamental misconception and common -confusion about GPL\@. Because of the prevalence of proprietary software, -most users, programmers, and lawyers alike tend to be more familiar with -EULAs. EULAs are believed by their authors to be contracts, requiring -formal agreement between the licensee and the software distributor to be -valid. This has led to mechanisms like ``shrink-wrap'' and ``click-wrap'' -as mechanisms to perform acceptance ceremonies with EULAs. - -The GPL does not need contract law to ``transfer rights.'' No rights -are transfered between parties. By contrast, the GPL is a permission -slip to undertake activities that would otherwise have been prohibited -by copyright law. As such, it needs no acceptance ceremony; the -licensee is not even required to accept the license. - -However, without the GPL, the activities of copying, modifying and -distributing the software would have otherwise been prohibited. So, the -GPL says that you only accepted the license by undertaking activities that -you would have otherwise been prohibited without your license under GPL\@. -This is a certainly subtle point, and requires a mindset quite different -from the contractual approach taken by EULA authors. - -An interesting side benefit to \S 5 is that the bulk of users of Free -Software are not required to accept the license. Undertaking fair and -unregulated use of the work, for example, does not bind you to the GPL, -since you are not engaging in activity that is otherwise controlled by -copyright law. Only when you engage in those activities that might have an -impact on the freedom of others does license acceptance occur, and the -terms begin to bind you to fair and equitable sharing of the software. In -other words, the GPL only kicks in when it needs to for the sake of -freedom. - -\section{GPL \S 6: GPL, My One and Only} -\label{GPLs6} - -A point that was glossed over in Section~\ref{GPLs4}'s discussion of \S 4 -was the irrevocable nature of the GPL\@. The GPL is indeed irrevocable, -and it is made so formally by \S 6. - -The first sentence in \S 6 ensures that as software propagates down the -distribution chain, that each licensor can pass along the license to each -new licensee. Under \S 6, the act of distributing automatically grants a -license from the original licensor to the next recipient. This creates a -chain of grants that ensure that everyone in the distribution has rights -under the GPL\@. In a mathematical sense, this bounds the bottom --- -making sure that future licensees get no fewer rights than the licensee before. - -The second sentence of \S 6 does the opposite; it bounds from the top. It -prohibits any licensor along the distribution chain from placing -additional restrictions on the user. In other words, no additional -requirements may trump the rights and freedoms given by GPL\@. - -The final sentence of \S 6 makes it abundantly clear that no individual -entity in the distribution chain is responsible for the compliance of any -other. This is particularly important for noncommercial users who have -passed along a source offer under \S 3(c), as they cannot be assured that -the issuer of the offer will honor their \S 3 obligations. - -In short, \S 6 says that your license for the software is your one and -only copyright license allowing you to copy, modify and distribute the -software. - -\section{GPL \S 7: ``Give Software Liberty or Give It Death!''} -\label{GPLs7} - -In essence, \S 7 is a verbosely worded way of saying for non-copyright -systems what \S 6 says for copyright. If there exists any reason that a -distributor knows of that would prohibit later licensees from exercising -their full rights under GPL, then distribution is prohibited. - -Originally, this was designed as the title of this section suggests --- as -a last ditch effort to make sure that freedom was upheld. However, in -modern times, it has come to give much more. Now that the body of GPL'd -software is so large, patent holders who would want to be distributors of -GPL'd software have a tough choice. They must choose between avoiding -distribution of GPL'd software that exercises the teachings of their -patents, or grant a royalty-free, irrevocable, non-exclusive license to -those patents. Many companies, including IBM, the largest patent holder -in the world, have chosen the latter. - -Thus, \S 7 rarely gives software death by stopping its distribution. -Instead, it is inspiring patent holders to share their patents in the same -freedom-defending way that they share their copyrighted works. - -\section{GPL \S 8: Excluding Unfreedonia} -\label{GPLs8} - -\S 8 is rarely used by copyright holders. Its intention is that if a -particular country, say Unfreedonia, grants particular patents or allows -copyrighted interfaces (no country to our knowledge even permits those -yet), that the GPL'd software can continue in free and unabated -distribution in the countries where such controls do not exist. - -It is a partial ``out'' from \S 7. Without \S 8, if a copyright holder -knew of a patent in a particular country licensed in a GPL-incompatible -way, then she could not distribute under GPL, because the work could -legitimately end up in the hands of citizens of Unfreedonia. - -It is an inevitable but sad reality that some countries are freer than -others. \S 8 exists to permit distribution in those countries that are -free without otherwise negating parts of the license. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Odds, Ends, and Absolutely No Warranty} - -\S 0--7 constitute the freedom-defending terms of the GPL. The remainder -of the GPL handles administrivia and issues concerning warranties and -liability. - -\section{GPL \S 9: FSF as Stewards of GPL} -\label{GPLs9} - -FSF reserves the exclusive right to publish future versions of the GPL\@; -\S 9 expresses this. While the stewardship of the copyrights on the body -of GPL'd software around the world is shared among thousands of -individuals and organizations, the license itself needs a single steward. -Forking of the code is often regrettable but basically innocuous. Forking -of licensing is disastrous. - -FSF has only released two versions of GPL --- in 1989 and 1991. GPL -version 3 is under current internal drafting. FSF's plan is to have a -long and engaging comment period. The goal of GPL is to defend freedom, and -a gigantic community depends on that freedom now. FSF hopes to take all -stakeholders' opinions under advisement. - -\section{GPL \S 10: Relicensing Permitted} -\label{GPLs10} - -\S 10 reminds the licensee of what is already implied by the nature of -copyright law. Namely, the copyright holder of a particular software -program has the prerogative to grant alternative agreements under separate -copyright licenses. - -\section{GPL \S 11: No Warranty} -\label{GPLs11} - -All warranty disclaimer language tends to be shouted in all capital -letters. Apparently, there was once a case where the disclaimer language -of an agreement was negated because it was not ``conspicuous'' to one of -the parties. Therefore, to make such language ``conspicuous,'' people -started placing it in bold or capitalizing the entire text. It now seems -to be voodoo tradition of warranty disclaimer writing. - -Some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions because -its disclaimer of warranties is impermissibly broad. However, \S 11 -contains a jurisdictional savings provision, which states that it is to be -interpreted only as broadly as allowed by applicable law. Such a -provision ensures that both it, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any -jurisdiction, regardless of any particular law regarding the -permissibility of certain warranty disclaimers. - -Finally, one important point to remember when reading \S 11 is that \S 1 -permits the sale of warranty as an additional service, which \S 11 affirms. - -\section{GPL, \S 12: Limitation of Liability} -\label{GPLs12} - -There are many types of warranties, and in some jurisdictions some of them -cannot be disclaimed. Therefore, usually agreements will have both a -warranty disclaimer and a limitation of liability, as we have in \S 12. \S -11 thus gets rid of all implied warranties that can legally be -disavowed. \S 12, in turn, limits the liability of the actor for any -warranties that cannot legally be disclaimed in a particular jurisdiction. - -Again, some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions -because its limitation of liability is impermissibly broad. However, \S -12, just like its sister, \S 11, contains a jurisdictional savings -provision, which states that it is to be interpreted only as broadly as -allowed by applicable law. As stated above, such a provision ensures that -both \S 12, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any jurisdiction, -regardless of any particular law regarding the permissibility of limiting -liability. - -So end the terms and conditions of the GNU General Public License. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{The Lesser GPL} - -As we have seen in our consideration of the GPL, its text is specifically -designed to cover all possible derivative works under copyright law. Our -goal in designing GPL was to make sure that any derivative work of GPL'd -software was itself released under GPL when distributed. Reaching as far -as copyright law will allow is the most direct way to reach that goal. - -However, while the strategic goal is to bring as much Free Software -into the world as possible, particular tactical considerations -regarding software freedom dictate different means. Extending the -copyleft effect as far as copyright law allows is not always the most -prudent course in reaching the goal. In particular situations, even -those of us with the goal of building a world where all published -software is Free Software realize that full copyleft does not best -serve us. The GNU Lesser General Public License (``GNU LGPL'') was -designed as a solution for such situations. - -\section{The First LGPL'd Program} - -The first example that FSF encountered where such altered tactics were -needed was when work began on the GNU C Library. The GNU C Library would -become (and today, now is) a drop-in replacement for existing C libraries. -On a Unix-like operating system, C is the lingua franca and the C library -is an essential component for all programs. It is extremely difficult to -construct a program that will run with ease on a Unix-like operating -system without making use of services provided by the C library --- even -if the program is written in a language other than C\@. Effectively, all -user application programs that run on any modern Unix-like system must -make use of the C library. - -By the time work began on the GNU implementation of the C libraries, there -were already many C libraries in existence from a variety of vendors. -Every proprietary Unix vendor had one, and many third parties produced -smaller versions for special purpose use. However, our goal was to create -a C library that would provide equivalent functionality to these other C -libraries on a Free Software operating system (which in fact happens today -on modern GNU/Linux systems, which all use the GNU C Library). - -Unlike existing GNU application software, however, the licensing -implications of releasing the GNU C Library (``glibc'') under GPL were -somewhat different. Applications released under GPL would never -themselves become part of proprietary software. However, if glibc were -released under GPL, it would require that any application distributed for -the GNU/Linux platform be released under GPL\@. - -Since all applications on a Unix-like system depend on the C library, it -means that they must link with that library to function on the system. In -other words, all applications running on a Unix-like system must be -combined with the C library to form a new whole derivative work that is -composed of the original application and the C library. Thus, if glibc -were GPL'd, each and every application distributed for use on GNU/Linux -would also need to be GPL'd, since to even function, such applications -would need to be combined into larger derivative works by linking with -glibc. - -At first glance, such an outcome seems like a windfall for Free Software -advocates, since it stops all proprietary software development on -GNU/Linux systems. However, the outcome is a bit more subtle. In a world -where many C libraries already exist, many of which could easily be ported -to GNU/Linux, a GPL'd glibc would be unlikely to succeed. Proprietary -vendors would see the excellent opportunity to license their C libraries -to anyone who wished to write proprietary software for GNU/Linux systems. -The de-facto standard for the C library on GNU/Linux would likely be not -glibc, but the most popular proprietary one. - -Meanwhile, the actual goal of releasing glibc under GPL --- to ensure no -proprietary applications on GNU/Linux --- would be unattainable in this -scenario. Furthermore, users of those proprietary applications would also -be users of a proprietary C library, not the Free glibc. - -The Lesser GPL was initially conceived to handle this scenario. It was -clear that the existence of proprietary applications for GNU/Linux was -inevitable. Since there were so many C libraries already in existence, a -new one under GPL would not stop that tide. However, if the new C library -were released under a license that permitted proprietary applications -to link with it, but made sure that the library itself remained Free, -an ancillary goal could be met. Users of proprietary applications, while -they would not have the freedom to copy, share, modify and redistribute -the application itself, would have the freedom to do so with respect to -the C library. - -There was no way the license of glibc could stop or even slow the creation -of proprietary applications on GNU/Linux. However, loosening the -restrictions on the licensing of glibc ensured that nearly all proprietary -applications at least used a Free C library rather than a proprietary one. -This trade-off is central to the reasoning behind the LGPL\@. - -Of course, many people who use the LGPL today are not thinking in these -terms. In fact, they are often choosing the LGPL because they are looking -for a ``compromise'' between the GPL and the X11-style liberal licensing. -However, understanding FSF's reasoning behind the creation of the LGPL is -helpful when studying the license. - - -\section{What's the Same?} - -Much of the text of the LGPL is identical to the GPL\@. As we begin our -discussion of the LGPL, we will first eliminate the sections that are -identical, or that have the minor modification changing the word -``Program'' to ``Library.'' - -First, \S 1 of LGPL, the rules for verbatim copying of source, are -equivalent to those in GPL's \S 1. - -Second, \S 8 of LGPL is equivalent \S 4 of GPL\@. In both licenses, this -section handles termination in precisely the same manner. - -\S 9 in LGPL is equivalent to \S 5 in GPL\@. Both sections assert that -the license is a copyright license, and handle the acceptance of those -copyright terms. - -LGPL's \S 10 is equivalent to GPL's \S 6. They both protect the -distribution system of Free Software under these licenses, to ensure that -up, down, and throughout the distribution chain, each recipient of the -software receives identical rights under the license and no other -restrictions are imposed. - -LGPL's \S 11 is GPL's \S 7. As discussed, it is used to ensure that -other claims and legal realities, such as patent licenses and court -judgments, do not trump the rights and permissions granted by these -licenses, and requires that distribution be halted if such a trump is -known to exist. - -LGPL's \S 12 adds the same features as GPL's \S 8. These sections are -used to allow original copyright holders to forbid distribution in -countries with draconian laws that would otherwise contradict these -licenses. - -LGPL's \S 13 sets up FSF as the steward of the LGPL, just as GPL's \S 9 -does for GPL. Meanwhile, LGPL's \S 14 reminds licensees that copyright -holders can grant exceptions to the terms of LGPL, just as GPL's \S 10 -reminds licensees of the same thing. - -Finally, the assertions of no warranty and limitations of liability are -identical; thus LGPL's \S 15 and \S 16 are the same as GPL's \S 11 and \S -12. - -As we see, the entire latter half of the license is identical. -The parts which set up the legal boundaries and meta-rules for the license -are the same. It is our intent that the two licenses operate under the -same legal mechanisms and are enforced precisely the same way. - -We strike a difference only in the early portions of the license. -Namely, in the LGPL we go into deeper detail of granting various permissions to -create derivative works, so the redistributors can make -some proprietary derivatives. Since we simply do not allow the -license to stretch as far as copyright law does regarding what -derivative works must be relicensed under the same terms, we must go -further to explain which derivative works we will allow to be -proprietary. Thus, we'll see that the front matter of the LGPL is a -bit more wordy and detailed with regards to the permissions granted to -those who modify or redistribute the software. - -\section{Additions to the Preamble} - -Most of LGPL's Preamble is identical, but the last seven paragraphs -introduce the concepts and reasoning behind creation of the license, -presenting a more generalized and briefer version of the story with which -we began our consideration of LGPL\@. - -In short, FSF designed LGPL for those edge cases where the freedom of the -public can better be served by a more lax licensing system. FSF doesn't -encourage use of LGPL automatically for any software that happens to be a -library; rather, FSF suggests that it only be used in specific cases, such -as the following: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item To encourage the widest possible use of a Free Software library, so - it becomes a de-facto standard over similar, although not - interface-identical, proprietary alternatives - -\item To encourage use of a Free Software library that already has - interface-identical proprietary competitors that are more developed - -\item To allow a greater number of users to get freedom, by encouraging - proprietary companies to pick a Free alternative for its otherwise - proprietary products - -\end{itemize} - -LGPL's preamble sets forth the limits to which the license seeks to go in -chasing these goals. LGPL is designed to ensure that users who happen to -acquire software linked with such libraries have full freedoms with -respect to that library. They should have the ability to upgrade to a newer -or modified Free version or to make their own modifications, even if they -cannot modify the primary software program that links to that library. - -Finally, the preamble introduces two terms used throughout the license to -clarify between the different types of derivative works: ``works that use -the library,'' and ``works based on the library.'' Unlike GPL, LGPL must -draw some lines regarding derivative works. We do this here in this -license because we specifically seek to liberalize the rights afforded to -those who make derivative works. In GPL, we reach as far as copyright law -allows. In LGPL, we want to draw a line that allows some derivative works -copyright law would otherwise prohibit if the copyright holder exercised -his full permitted controls over the work. - -\section{A Work that Uses the Library} - -In the effort to allow certain proprietary derivative works and prohibit -others, LGPL distinguishes between two classes of derivative works: -``works based on the library,'' and ``works that use the library.'' The -distinction is drawn on the bright line of binary (or runtime) derivative -works and source code derivatives. We will first consider the definition -of a ``work that uses the library,'' which is set forth in LGPL \S 5. - -We noted in our discussion of GPL \S 3 (discussed in -Section~\ref{GPL-Section-3} of this document) that binary programs when -compiled and linked with GPL'd software are derivative works of that GPL'd -software. This includes both linking that happens at compile-time (when -the binary is created) or at runtime (when the binary -- including library -and main program both -- is loaded into memory by the user). In GPL, -binary derivative works are controlled by the terms of the license (in GPL -\S 3), and distributors of such binary derivatives must release full -corresponding source\@. - -In the case of LGPL, these are precisely the types of derivative works -we wish to permit. This scenario, defined in LGPL as ``a work that uses -the library,'' works as follows: - -\newcommand{\workl}{$\mathcal{L}$} -\newcommand{\lplusi}{$\mathcal{L\!\!+\!\!I}$} - -\begin{itemize} - -\item A new copyright holder creates a separate and independent work, - \worki{}, that makes interface calls (e.g., function calls) to the - LGPL'd work, called \workl{}, whose copyright is held by some other - party. Note that since \worki{} and \workl{} are separate and - independent works, there is no copyright obligation on this new copyright - holder with regard to the licensing of \worki{}, at least with regard to - the source code. - -\item The new copyright holder, for her software to be useful, realizes - that it cannot run without combining \worki{} and \workl{}. - Specifically, when she creates a running binary program, that running - binary must be a derivative work, called \lplusi{}, that the user can - run. - -\item Since \lplusi{} is a derivative work of both \worki{} and \workl{}, - the license of \workl{} (the LGPL) can put restrictions on the license - of \lplusi{}. In fact, this is what LGPL does. - -\end{itemize} - -We will talk about the specific restrictions LGPL places on ``works -that use the library'' in detail in Section~\ref{lgpl-section-6}. For -now, focus on the logic related to how the LGPL places requirements on -the license of \lplusi{}. Note, first of all, the similarity between -this explanation and that in Section~\ref{separate-and-independent}, -which discussed the combination of otherwise separate and independent -works with GPL'd code. Effectively, what LGPL does is say that when a -new work is otherwise separate and independent, but has interface -calls out to an LGPL'd library, then it is considered a ``work that -uses the library.'' - -In addition, the only reason that LGPL has any control over the licensing -of a ``work that uses the library'' is for the same reason that GPL has -some say over separate and independent works. Namely, such controls exist -because the {\em binary combination\/} (\lplusi{}) that must be created to -make the separate work (\worki{}) at all useful is a derivative work of -the LGPL'd software (\workl{}). - -Thus, a two-question test that will help indicate if a particular work is -a ``work that uses the library'' under LGPL is as follows: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item Is the source code of the new copyrighted work, \worki{}, a - completely independent work that stands by itself, and includes no - source code from \workl{}? - -\item When the source code is compiled, does it create a derivative work - by combining with \workl{}, either by static (compile-time) or dynamic - (runtime) linking, to create a new binary work, \lplusi{}? -\end{enumerate} - -If the answers to both questions are ``yes,'' then \worki{} is most likely -a ``work that uses the library.'' If the answer to the first question -``yes,'' but the answer to the second question is ``no,'' then most likely -\worki{} is neither a ``work that uses the library'' nor a ``work based on -the library.'' If the answer to the first question is ``no,'' but the -answer to the second question is ``yes,'' then an investigation into -whether or not \worki{} is in fact a ``work based on the library'' is -warranted. - -\section{A Work Based on the Library} - -In short, a ``work based on the library'' could be defined as any -derivative work of LGPL'd software that cannot otherwise fit the -definition of a ``work that uses the library.'' A ``work based on the -library'' extends the full width and depth of copyright derivative works, -in the same sense that GPL does. - -Most typically, one creates a ``work based on the library'' by directly -modifying the source of the library. Such a work could also be created by -tightly integrating new software with the library. The lines are no doubt -fuzzy, just as they are with GPL'd works, since copyright law gives us no -litmus test for derivative works of a software program. - -Thus, the test to use when considering whether something is a ``work -based on the library'' is as follows: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item Is the new work, when in source form, a derivative work under - copyright law of the LGPL'd work? - -\item Is there no way in which the new work fits the definition of a - ``work that uses the library''? -\end{enumerate} - - -If the answer is ``yes'' to both these questions, then you most likely -have a ``work based on the library.'' If the answer is ``no'' to the -first but ``yes'' to the second, you are in a gray area between ``work -based on the library'' and a ``work that uses the library.'' - -In our years of work with the LGPL, however, we have never seen a work -of software that was not clearly one or the other; the line is quite -bright. At times, though, we have seen cases where a derivative work -appeared in some ways to be a work that used the library and in other -ways a work based on the library. We overcame this problem by -dividing the work into smaller subunits. It was soon discovered that -what we actually had were three distinct components: the original -LGPL'd work, a specific set of works that used that library, and a -specific set of works that were based on the library. Once such -distinctions are established, the licensing for each component can be -considered independently and the LGPL applied to each work as -prescribed. - - -\section{Subtleties in Works that Use the Library} - -In our discussion of the definition of ``works that use the library,'' we -left out a few more complex details that relate to lower-level programming -details. The fourth paragraph of LGPL's \S 5 covers these complexities, -and it has been a source of great confusion. Part of the confusion comes -because a deep understanding of how compiler programs work is nearly -mandatory to grasp the subtle nature of what \S 5, \P 4 seeks to -cover. It helps some to note that this is a border case that we cover in -the license only so that when such a border case is hit, the implications -of using LGPL continue in the expected way. - -To understand this subtle point, we must recall the way that a compiler -operates. The compiler first generates object code, which are the binary -representations of various programming modules. Each of those modules is -usually not useful by itself; it becomes useful to a user of a full program -when those modules are {\em linked\/} into a full binary executable. - -As we have discussed, the assembly of modules can happen at compile-time -or at runtime. Legally, there is no distinction between the two --- both -create a derivative work by copying and combining portions of one work and -mixing them with another. However, under LGPL, there is a case in the -compilation process where the legal implications are different. -Specifically, while we know that a ``work that uses the library'' is one -whose final binary is a derivative work, but whose source is not, there -are cases where the object code --- that intermediate step between source -and final binary --- is a derivative work created by copying verbatim code -from the LGPL'd software. - -For efficiency, when a compiler turns source code into object code, it -sometimes places literal portions of the copyrighted library code into the -object code for an otherwise separate independent work. In the normal -scenario, the derivative would not be created until final assembly and -linking of the executable occurred. However, when the compiler does this -efficiency optimization, at the intermediate object code step, a -derivative work is created. - -LGPL's \S 5, \P 4 is designed to handle this specific case. The intent of -the license is clearly that simply compiling software to ``make use'' of -the library does not in itself cause the compiled work to be a ``work -based on the library.'' However, since the compiler copies verbatim, -copyrighted portions of the library into the object code for the otherwise -separate and independent work, it would actually cause that object file to be a -``work based on the library.'' It is not FSF's intent that a mere -compilation idiosyncrasy would change the requirements on the users of the -LGPL'd software. This paragraph removes that restriction, allowing the -implications of the license to be the same regardless of the specific -mechanisms the compiler uses underneath to create the ``work that uses the -library.'' - -As it turns out, we have only once had anyone worry about this specific -idiosyncrasy, because that particular vendor wanted to ship object code -(rather than final binaries) to their customers and was worried about -this edge condition. The intent of clarifying this edge condition is -primarily to quell the worries of software engineers who understand the -level of verbatim code copying that a compiler often does, and to help -them understand that the full implications of LGPL are the same regardless -of the details of the compilation progress. - -\section{LGPL \S 6: Distributing Works that Use the Library} -\label{lgpl-section-6} -Now that we have established a good working definition of works that -``use'' and works that ``are based on'' the library, we will consider the -rules for distributing these two different works. - -The rules for distributing ``works that use the library'' are covered in -\S 6 of LGPL\@. \S 6 is much like GPL's \S 3, as it requires the release -of source when a binary version of the LGPL'd software is released. Of -course, it only requires that source code for the library itself be made -available. The work that ``uses'' the library need not be provided in -source form. However, there are also conditions in LGPL \S 6 to make sure -that a user who wishes to modify or update the library can do so. - -LGPL \S 6 lists five choices with regard to supplying library source -and granting the freedom to modify that library source to users. We -will first consider the option given by \S 6(b), which describes the -most common way currently used for LGPL compliance on a ``work that -uses the library.'' - -\S 6(b) allows the distributor of a ``work that uses the library'' to -simply use a dynamically linked, shared library mechanism to link with the -library. This is by far the easiest and most straightforward option for -distribution. In this case, the executable of the work that uses the -library will contain only the ``stub code'' that is put in place by the -shared library mechanism, and at runtime the executable will combine with -the shared version of the library already resident on the user's computer. -If such a mechanism is used, it must allow the user to upgrade and -replace the library with interface-compatible versions and still be able -to use the ``work that uses the library.'' However, all modern shared -library mechanisms function as such, and thus \S 6(b) is the simplest -option, since it does not even require that the distributor of the ``work -based on the library'' ship copies of the library itself. - -\S 6(a) is the option to use when, for some reason, a shared library -mechanism cannot be used. It requires that the source for the library be -included, in the typical GPL fashion, but it also has a requirement beyond -that. The user must be able to exercise her freedom to modify the library -to its fullest extent, and that means recombining it with the ``work based -on the library.'' If the full binary is linked without a shared library -mechanism, the user must have available the object code for the ``work -based on the library,'' so that the user can relink the application and -build a new binary. - -The remaining options in \S 6 are very similar to the other choices -provided by GPL \S 3. There are some additional options, but time does -not permit us in this course to go into those additional options. In -almost all cases of distribution under LGPL, either \S 6(a) or \S 6(b) are -exercised. - -\section{Distribution of Works Based on the Library} - -Essentially, ``works based on the library'' must be distributed under the -same conditions as works under full GPL\@. In fact, we note that LGPL's -\S 2 is nearly identical in its terms and requirements to GPL's \S 2. -There are again subtle differences and additions, which time does not -permit us to cover in this course. - -\section{And the Rest} - -The remaining variations between LGPL and GPL cover the following -conditions: - -\begin{itemize} - -\item Allowing a licensing ``upgrade'' from LGPL to GPL\@ (in LGPL \S 3) - -\item Binary distribution of the library only, covered in LGPL \S 4, - which is effectively equivalent to LGPL \S 3 - -\item Creating aggregates of libraries that are not derivative works of - each other, and distributing them as a unit (in LGPL \S 7) - -\end{itemize} - - -Due to time constraints, we cannot cover these additional terms in detail, -but they are mostly straightforward. The key to understanding LGPL is -understanding the difference between a ``work based on the library'' and a -``work that uses the library.'' Once that distinction is clear, the -remainder of LGPL is close enough to GPL that the concepts discussed in -our more extensive GPL unit can be directly applied. - -%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% -\chapter{Integrating the GPL into Business Practices} - -Since GPL'd software is now extremely prevalent through the industry, it -is useful to have some basic knowledge about using GPL'd software in -business and how to build business models around GPL'd software. - -\section{Using GPL'd Software In-House} - -As discussed in Sections~\ref{GPLs0} and~\ref{GPLs5} of this tutorial, -the GPL only governs the activities of copying, modifying and -distributing software programs that are not governed by the license. -Thus, in FSF's view, simply installing the software on a machine and -using it is not controlled or limited in any way by GPL\@. Using Free -Software in general requires substantially fewer agreements and less -license compliance activity than any known proprietary software. - -Even if a company engages heavily in copying the software throughout the -enterprise, such copying is not only permitted by \S\S 1 and 3, but it is -encouraged! If the company simply deploys unmodified (or even modified) -Free Software throughout the organization for its employees to use, the -obligations under the license are very minimal. Using Free Software has a -substantially lower cost of ownership --- both in licensing fees and in -licensing checking and handling -- than the proprietary software -equivalents. - -\section{Business Models} -\label{Business Models} - -Using Free Software in house is certainly helpful, but a thriving -market for Free Software-oriented business models also exists. There is the -traditional model of selling copies of Free Software distributions. -Many companies, including IBM and Red Hat, make substantial revenue -from this model. IBM primarily chooses this model because they have -found that for higher-end hardware, the cost of the profit made from -proprietary software licensing fees is negligible. The real profit is -in the hardware, but it is essential that software be stable, reliable -and dependable, and the users be allowed to have unfettered access to -it. Free Software, and GPL'd software in particular (because IBM can -be assured that proprietary versions of the same software will not -exists to compete on their hardware) is the right choice. - -Red Hat has actually found that a ``convenience fee'' for Free Software, -when set at a reasonable price (around \$60 or so), can produce some -profit. Even though Red Hat's system is fully downloadable on their -Web site, people still go to local computer stores and buy copies of their -box set, which is simply a printed version of the manual (available under -a Free license as well) and the Free Software system it documents. - -\medskip - -However, custom support, service, and software improvement contracts -are the most widely used models for GPL'd software. The GPL is -central to their success, because it ensures that the code base -remains common, and that large and small companies are on equal -footing for access to the technology. Consider, for example, the GNU -Compiler Collection (GCC). Cygnus Solutions, a company started in the -early 1990s, was able to grow steadily simply by providing services -for GCC --- mostly consisting of new ports of GCC to different or new, -embedded targets. Eventually, Cygnus was so successful that -it was purchased by Red Hat where it remains a profitable division. - -However, there are very small companies like CodeSourcery, as well as -other medium-sized companies like MontaVista and OpenTV that compete in -this space. Because the code-base is protect by GPL, it creates and -demands industry trust. Companies can cooperate on the software and -improve it for everyone. Meanwhile, companies who rely on GCC for their -work are happy to pay for improvements, and for ports to new target -platforms. Nearly all the changes fold back into the standard -versions, and those forks that exist remain freely available. - -\medskip - -\label{Proprietary Relicensing} - -A final common business model that is perhaps the most controversial is -proprietary relicensing of a GPL'd code base. This is only an option for -software in which a particular entity is the sole copyright holder. As -discussed earlier in this tutorial, a copyright holder is permitted under -copyright law to license a software system under her copyright as many -different ways as she likes to as many different parties as she wishes. - -Some companies, such as MySQL AB and TrollTech, use this to their -financial advantage with regard to a GPL'd code base. The standard -version is available from the company under the terms of the GPL\@. -However, parties can purchase separate proprietary software licensing for -a fee. - -This business model is problematic because it means that the GPL'd code -base must be developed in a somewhat monolithic way, because volunteer -Free Software developers may be reluctant to assign their copyrights to -the company because it will not promise to always and forever license the -software as Free Software. Indeed, the company will surely use such code -contributions in proprietary versions licensed for fees. - -\section{Ongoing Compliance} - -GPL compliance is in fact a very simple matter -- much simpler than -typical proprietary software agreements and EULAs. Usually, the most -difficult hurdle is changing from a proprietary software mindset to one -that seeks to foster a community of sharing and mutual support. Certainly -complying with the GPL from a users' perspective gives substantially fewer -headaches than proprietary license compliance. - -For those who go into the business of distributing {\em modified\\} -versions of GPL'd software, the burden is a bit higher, but not by -much. The glib answer is that by releasing the whole product as Free -Software, it is always easy to comply with the GPL. However, -admittedly to the dismay of FSF, many modern and complex software -systems are built using both proprietary and GPL'd components that are -not legally derivative works of each other. Sometimes, it is easier simply to -improve existing GPL'd application than to start from scratch. In -exchange for that benefit, the license requires that the modifier give -back to the commons that made the work easier in the first place. It is a -reasonable trade-off and a way to help build a better world while also -making a profit. - -Note that FSF does provide services to assist companies who need -assistance in complying with the GPL. You can contact FSF's GPL -Compliance Labs at $<$compliance@fsf.org$>$. - -If you are particularly interested in matters of GPL compliance, we -recommend the second course in this series, {\em GPL Compliance Case - Studies and Legal Ethics in Free Software Licensing\/}, in which we -discuss some real GPL violation cases that FSF has worked to resolve. -Consideration of such cases can help give insight on how to handle GPL -compliance in new situations. - -\backmatter - -\appendix - -\chapter{The GNU General Public License} - -\begin{center} -{\parindent 0in - -Version 2, June 1991 - -Copyright \copyright\ 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\bigskip - -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -\bigskip - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. -} -\end{center} - -\begin{center} -{\bf\large Preamble} -\end{center} - - -The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom -to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is -intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change Free -Software---to make sure the software is free for all its users. This -General Public License applies to most of the Free Software -Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to -using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by -the GNU Library General Public License instead.) You can apply it to -your programs, too. - -When we speak of Free Software, we are referring to freedom, not price. -Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the -freedom to distribute copies of Free Software (and charge for this service -if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, -that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new Free programs; -and that you know you can do these things. - -To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to -deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These -restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you -distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it. - -For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or -for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You -must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. And -you must show them these terms so they know their rights. - -We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) -offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy, -distribute and/or modify the software. - -Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that -everyone understands that there is no warranty for this Free Software. If -the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its -recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any -problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors' -reputations. - -Finally, any Free program is threatened constantly by software patents. -We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a Free program will -individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program -proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must -be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all. - -The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and -modification follow. - -\begin{center} -{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and - Modification} -\end{center} - - -\begin{enumerate} - -\addtocounter{enumi}{-1} -\item - -This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice -placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the -terms of this General Public License. The ``Program,'' below, refers to -any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either -the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a -work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with -modifications and/or translated into another language. (Hereinafter, -translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification.'') -Each licensee is addressed as ``you.'' - -Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not -covered by this License; they are outside its scope. The act of -running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program -is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the -Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). -Whether that is true depends on what the Program does. - -\item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source - code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously - and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice - and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to - this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other - recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program. - -You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you -may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee. - -\item - -You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion -of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and -distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1 -above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that -you changed the files and the date of any change. - -\item - -You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in -whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any -part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third -parties under the terms of this License. - -\item -If the modified program normally reads commands interactively -when run, you must cause it, when started running for such -interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an -announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a -notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide -a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under -these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this -License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but -does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on -the Program is not required to print an announcement.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If -identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program, -and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in -themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those -sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you -distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based -on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of -this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the -entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it. - -Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest -your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to -exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or -collective works based on the Program. - -In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program -with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of -a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under -the scope of this License. - -\item -You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, -under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of -Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following: - -\begin{enumerate} - -\item - -Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable -source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections -1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three -years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your -cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete -machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be -distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium -customarily used for software interchange; or, - -\item - -Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer -to distribute corresponding source code. (This alternative is -allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you -received the program in object code or executable form with such -an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.) - -\end{enumerate} - - -The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for -making modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source -code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any -associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to -control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a -special exception, the source code distributed need not include -anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary -form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the -operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component -itself accompanies the executable. - -If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering -access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent -access to copy the source code from the same place counts as -distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not -compelled to copy the source along with the object code. - -\item -You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program -except as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt -otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is -void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License. -However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under -this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such -parties remain in full compliance. - -\item -You are not required to accept this License, since you have not -signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or -distribute the Program or its derivative works. These actions are -prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by -modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the -Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and -all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying -the Program or works based on it. - -\item -Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the -Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the -original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to -these terms and conditions. You may not impose any further -restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. -You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to -this License. - -\item -If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent -infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues), -conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or -otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not -excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot -distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this -License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you -may not distribute the Program at all. For example, if a patent -license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by -all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then -the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to -refrain entirely from distribution of the Program. - -If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under -any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to -apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other -circumstances. - -It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any -patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any -such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the -integrity of the Free Software distribution system, which is -implemented by public license practices. Many people have made -generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed -through that system in reliance on consistent application of that -system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing -to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot -impose that choice. - -This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to -be a consequence of the rest of this License. - -\item -If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in -certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the -original copyright holder who places the Program under this License -may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding -those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among -countries not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates -the limitation as if written in the body of this License. - -\item -The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions -of the General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will -be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to -address new problems or concerns. - -Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program -specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any -later version,'' you have the option of following the terms and conditions -either of that version or of any later version published by the Free -Software Foundation. If the Program does not specify a version number of -this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software -Foundation. - -\item -If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free -programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author -to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by the Free -Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes -make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two goals -of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our Free Software and -of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally. - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc -No Warranty -} -\end{center} - -\item -{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty -for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when -otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties -provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed -or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of -merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as -to the quality and performance of the program is with you. Should the -program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing, -repair or correction.} - -\item {\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to - in writing will any copyright holder, or any other party who may - modify and/or redistribute the program as permitted above, be - liable to you for damages, including any general, special, - incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use or - inability to use the program (including but not limited to loss of - data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by you - or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any - other programs), even if such holder or other party has been - advised of the possibility of such damages.} - -\end{enumerate} - - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc End of Terms and Conditions} -\end{center} -\vfill - -\pagebreak[4] - -\section*{Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs} - -If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest -possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it -Free Software which everyone can redistribute and change under these -terms. - - To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to - attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey - the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the - ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. - -\begin{quote} -one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does. \\ -Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ - -This program is Free Software; you can redistribute it and/or modify -it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by -the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or -(at your option) any later version. - -This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, -but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of -MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the -GNU General Public License for more details. - -You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License -along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software -Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA. -\end{quote} - -Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. - -If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this -when it starts in an interactive mode: - -\begin{quote} -Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) yyyy name of author \\ -Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. \\ -This is Free Software, and you are welcome to redistribute it -under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. -\end{quote} - - -The hypothetical commands {\tt show w} and {\tt show c} should show the -appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, the commands -you use may be called something other than {\tt show w} and {\tt show c}; -they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your -program. - -You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your -school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if -necessary. Here is a sample; alter the names: - -\begin{quote} -Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program \\ -`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. \\ - -signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989 \\ -Ty Coon, President of Vice -\end{quote} - - -This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program -into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you -may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications -with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library -General Public License instead of this License. - - -\chapter{The GNU Lesser General Public License} - -\begin{center} -{\parindent 0in - -Version 2.1, February 1999 - -Copyright \copyright\ 1991, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -\bigskip - -59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA - -\bigskip - -Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies -of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. - -\bigskip - -[This is the first released version of the Lesser GPL. It also counts - as the successor of the GNU Library Public License version 2, hence - the version number 2.1.] -} - -\end{center} - -\begin{center} -{\bf\large Preamble} -\end{center} - -The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to -share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public Licenses are -intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change Free Software---to -make sure the software is free for all its users. - -This license, the Lesser General Public License, applies to some specially -designated software packages---typically libraries---of the Free Software -Foundation and other authors who decide to use it. You can use it too, -but we suggest you first think carefully about whether this license or the -ordinary General Public License is the better strategy to use in any -particular case, based on the explanations below. - -When we speak of Free Software, we are referring to freedom of use, not -price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you -have the freedom to distribute copies of Free Software (and charge for -this service if you wish); that you receive source code or can get it if -you want it; that you can change the software and use pieces of it in new -Free programs; and that you are informed that you can do these things. - -To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid -distributors to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender these -rights. These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you -if you distribute copies of the library or if you modify it. - -For example, if you distribute copies of the library, whether gratis or -for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that we gave you. -You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code. If -you link other code with the library, you must provide complete object -files to the recipients, so that they can relink them with the library -after making changes to the library and recompiling it. And you must show -them these terms so they know their rights. - -We protect your rights with a two-step method: (1) we copyright the -library, and (2) we offer you this license, which gives you legal -permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the library. - -To protect each distributor, we want to make it very clear that there is -no warranty for the Free library. Also, if the library is modified by -someone else and passed on, the recipients should know that what they have -is not the original version, so that the original author's reputation will -not be affected by problems that might be introduced by others. - -Finally, software patents pose a constant threat to the existence of any -Free program. We wish to make sure that a company cannot effectively -restrict the users of a Free program by obtaining a restrictive license -from a patent holder. Therefore, we insist that any patent license -obtained for a version of the library must be consistent with the full -freedom of use specified in this license. - -Most GNU software, including some libraries, is covered by the ordinary -GNU General Public License. This license, the GNU Lesser General Public -License, applies to certain designated libraries, and is quite different -from the ordinary General Public License. We use this license for certain -libraries in order to permit linking those libraries into non-Free -programs. - -When a program is linked with a library, whether statically or using a -shared library, the combination of the two is legally speaking a combined -work, a derivative of the original library. The ordinary General Public -License therefore permits such linking only if the entire combination fits -its criteria of freedom. The Lesser General Public License permits more -lax criteria for linking other code with the library. - -We call this license the ``Lesser'' General Public License because it does -Less to protect the user's freedom than the ordinary General Public -License. It also provides other Free Software developers Less of an -advantage over competing non-Free programs. These disadvantages are the -reason we use the ordinary General Public License for many libraries. -However, the Lesser license provides advantages in certain special -circumstances. - -For example, on rare occasions, there may be a special need to encourage -the widest possible use of a certain library, so that it becomes a -de-facto standard. To achieve this, non-Free programs must be allowed to -use the library. A more frequent case is that a Free library does the -same job as widely used non-Free libraries. In this case, there is little -to gain by limiting the Free library to Free Software only, so we use the -Lesser General Public License. - -In other cases, permission to use a particular library in non-Free -programs enables a greater number of people to use a large body of Free -software. For example, permission to use the GNU C Library in non-Free -programs enables many more people to use the whole GNU operating system, -as well as its variant, the GNU/Linux operating system. - -Although the Lesser General Public License is Less protective of the -users' freedom, it does ensure that the user of a program that is linked -with the library has the freedom and the wherewithal to run that program -using a modified version of the library. - -The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and -modification follow. Pay close attention to the difference between a -``work based on the library'' and a ``work that uses the library.'' The -former contains code derived from the library, whereas the latter must be -combined with the library in order to run. - -\begin{center} -{\Large \sc GNU Lesser General Public License} \\ -{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and - Modification} -\end{center} - -\begin{enumerate} - -\addtocounter{enumi}{-1} - -\item - -This License Agreement applies to any software library or other program -which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder or other authorized -party saying it may be distributed under the terms of this Lesser General -Public License (also called ``this License''). 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Our -decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status -of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing -and reuse of software generally. - -\begin{center} -{\Large\sc -No Warranty -} -\end{center} - -\item -{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty -for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when -otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties -provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed -or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of -merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as -to the quality and performance of the program is with you. Should the -program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing, -repair or correction.} - -\item -{\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing -will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or -redistribute the program as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, -including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising -out of the use or inability to use the program (including but not limited -to loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by -you or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any other -programs), even if such holder or other party has been advised of the -possibility of such damages.} - -\end{enumerate} - -That's all there is to it! - -\chapter{GPL Version 3: Background to Adoption} - -\textbf{\textit{\large{by Richard Stallman and Eben Moglen}}} - -\smallskip - -The GNU General Public License (``the GPL'') has remained -unmodified, at version level 2, since 1991. This is extraordinary -longevity for any widely-employed legal instrument. The durability of -the GPL is even more surprising when one takes into account the -differences between the free software movement at the time of version -2's release and the situation prevailing in 2005. - -Richard M. Stallman, founder of the free software movement and author -of the GNU GPL, released version 2 in 1991 after taking legal advice -and collecting developer opinion concerning version 1 of the license, -which had been in use since 1985. There was no formal public comment -process and no significant interim transition period. The Free -Software Foundation immediately relicensed the components of the GNU -Project, which comprised the largest then-existing collection of -copyleft software assets. In Finland, Linus Torvalds adopted GPL -Version 2 for his operating system kernel, called Linux. - -That was then, and this is now. The GPL is employed by tens of -thousands of software projects around the world, of which the Free -Software Foundation's GNU system is a tiny fraction. The GNU system, -when combined with Linus Torvalds' Linux---which has evolved into a -flexible, highly-portable, industry-leading operating system kernel ---- along with Samba, MySQL, and other GPL'd programs, offers superior -reliability and adaptability to Microsoft's operating systems, at -nominal cost. GPL'd software runs on or is embedded in devices -ranging from cellphones, PDAs and home networking appliances to -mainframes and supercomputing clusters. Independent software -developers around the world, as well as every large corporate IT buyer -and seller, and a surprisingly large proportion of individual users, -interact with the GPL. - -During the period since 1991, of course, there has developed a -profusion of free software licenses. But not in the area covered by -the GPL. The ``share and share alike'' or ``copyleft'' aspect of the -GPL is its most important functional characteristic, and those who -want to use a copyleft license for software overwhelmingly use the GPL -rather than inventing their own. - -Updating the GPL is therefore a very different task in 2005 than it -was in 1991. The substantive reasons for revision, and the likely -nature of those changes, are subject matter for another essay. At -present we would like to concentrate on the institutional, procedural -aspects of changing the license. Those are complicated by the fact -that the GPL serves four distinct purposes. - -\section*{The GPL is a Worldwide Copyright License} - -As a legal document, the GPL serves a purpose that most legal drafters -would do anything possible to avoid: it licenses copyrighted material -for modification and redistribution in every one of the world's -systems of copyright law. In general, publishers don't use worldwide -copyright licenses; for each system in which their works are -distributed, licensing arrangements tailored to local legal -requirements are used. Publishers rarely license redistribution of -modified or derivative works; when they do so, those licenses are -tailored to the specific setting, factual and legal. But free -software requires legal arrangements that permit copyrighted works to -follow arbitrary trajectories, in both geographic and genetic terms. -Modified versions of free software works are distributed from hand to -hand across borders in a pattern that no copyright holder could -possibly trace. - -GPL version 2 performed the task of globalization relatively well, -because its design was elegantly limited to a minimum set of copyright -principles that signatories to the Berne Convention must offer, in one -form or another, in their national legislation. But GPL2 was a -license constructed by one US layman and his lawyers, largely -concerned with US law. To the extent possible, and without any -fundamental changes, GPL3 should ease internationalization -difficulties, more fully approximating the otherwise unsought ideal of -the global copyright license. - -\section*{The GPL is the Code of Conduct for Free Software Distributors} - -Beyond the legal permission that the GPL extends to those who wish to -copy, modify, and share free software, the GPL also embodies a code of -industry conduct with respect to the practices by which free software -is distributed. Section 3, which explains how to make source code -available as required under the license, affects product packaging -decisions for those who embed free software in appliances, as well as -those who distribute software collections that include both free and -unfree software. Section 7, which concerns the effect of licenses, -judgments, and other compulsory legal interventions incompatible with -the GPL on the behavior of software distributors, affects patent -licensing arrangements in connection with industry standards. And so -on, through a range of interactions between the requirements of the -license and evolving practices in the vending of both hardware and -software. - -The Free Software Foundation, through its maintenance and enforcement -of the GPL, has contributed to the evolution of industry behavior -patterns beyond its influence as a maker of software. In revising the -GPL, the Foundation is inevitably engaged in altering the rules of the -road for enterprises and market participants of many different kinds, -with different fundamental interests and radically different levels of -market power. The process of drafting and adopting changes to the -license must thus approximate standard-setting, or ``best practices'' -definition, as well as copyright license drafting. - -\section*{The GPL is the Constitution of the Free Software Movement} - -The Free Software Foundation has never been reluctant to point out -that its goals are primarily social and political, not technical or -economic. The Foundation believes that free software---that is, -software that can be freely studied, copied, modified, reused, -redistributed and shared by its users---is the only ethically -satisfactory form of software development, as free and open scientific -research is the only ethically satisfactory context for the conduct of -mathematics, physics, or biology. The Foundation, and those who -support its broader work, regard free software as an essential step in -a social movement for freer access to knowledge, freer access to -facilities of communication, and a more deeply participatory culture, -open to human beings with less regard to existing distributions of -wealth and social power. The free software movement has taken -advantage of the social conditions of its time to found its program on -the creation of vast new wealth, through new systems of cooperation, -which can in turn be shared in order to further the creation of new -wealth, in a positive feedback loop. - -This program is not, of course, universally shared by all the parties -who benefit from the exploitation of the new wealth created by free -software. The free software movement has never objected to the -indirect benefits accruing to those who differ from the movement's -goals: one of the powerful lessons the movement has learned from -previous aspects of the long-duration Western movement for freedom of -expression is the value of working with, rather than against, -conventional economic interests and concerns. But the movement's own -goals cannot be subordinated to the economic interests of our friends -and allies in industry, let alone those who occasionally contribute -solely for reasons of their own. Changes to the GPL, for whatever -reason they are undertaken, must not undermine the underlying movement -for freer exchange of knowledge. To the extent that the movement has -identified technological or legal measures likely to be harmful to -freedom, such as ``trusted computing'' or a broadening of the scope of -patent law, the GPL needs to address those issues from a perspective -of political principle and the needs of the movement, not from primary -regard for the industrial or commercial consequences. - -\section*{The GPL is the Literary Work of Richard M.\ Stallman} - -Some copyright licenses are no doubt known, in the restricted circle -of one firm or law office, as the achievement of a single author's -acumen or insight. But it is safe to say that there is no other -copyright license in the world that is so strongly identified with the -achievements, and the philosophy, of a single public figure. Mr.\ -Stallman remains the GPL's author, with as much right to preserve its -integrity as a work representative of his intentions as any other -author or creator. Under his guidance, the Free Software Foundation, -which holds the copyright of the GPL, will coordinate and direct the -process of its modification. - -\section*{Conclusion} - -The GPL serves, and must continue to serve, multiple purposes. Those -purposes are fundamentally diverse, and they inevitably conflict. -Development of GPL version 3 has been an ongoing process within the -Free Software Foundation; we, along with our colleagues, have never -stopped considering possible modifications. We have consulted, -formally and informally, a very broad array of participants in the -free software community, from industry, the academy, and the garage. -Those conversations have occurred in many countries and several -languages, over almost two decades, as the technology of software -development and distribution changed around us. - -When a GPLv3 discussion draft is released, the pace of that -conversation will change, as a particular proposal becomes the -centerpiece. The Foundation will, before it emits a first discussion -draft, publicize the process by which it intends to gather opinion and -suggestions. The Free Software Foundation recognizes that the -reversioning of the GPL is a crucial moment in the evolution of the -free software community, and the Foundation intends to meet its -responsibilities to the makers, distributors and users of free -software. In doing so, we hope to hear all relevant points of view, -and to make decisions that reflect the many disparate purposes that -the license must serve. Our primary concern remains, as it has been -from the beginning, the creation and protection of freedom. We -recognize that the best protection of freedom is a growing and vital -community of the free. We will use the process of public discussion -of GPL3 drafts to support and nurture the community of the free. -Proprietary culture imposes both technology and license terms; free -software means allowing people to understand, experiment and modify -software, as well as getting involved in the discussion of license -terms, so that everyone's ideas can contribute to the common good, and -the development of each contributes to the development of all. - -% ===================================================================== -% END OF FIRST DAY SEMINAR SECTION -% ===================================================================== - -\end{document}